THE KORO-IJA NOUN PHRASE
OBATOYE, Julianah Fôláśadé
07/15CB068
A LONG ESSAY SUBMITTED TO THE
DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS AND NIGERIA
LANGUAGES, FACULTY OF ARTS, UNIVERSITY
OF ILORIN, ILORIN, KWARA STATE.
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE
OF BACHELOR OF ARTS DEGREE (HONS) IN
LINGUISTICS
MAY, 2011
CERTIFICATION
This essay has been read and approved as meeting the
requirements of the Department of Linguistics and Nigerian
languages, University of Ilorin, Ilorin Nigeria.
…………………………..
Dr. I.O, Sanusi
Project Supervisor
……………………
Date
…………………………..
Prof. A.S, Abdussalam
Head of Department
……………………
Date
…………………………..
External Examiner
……………………
Date
ii
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to Almighty God the reason for
my existence, giver of life, for his protection, guidance and
provision since birth up to this present moment and for
seeing me through the course of my programme. May I live to
praise him always for his goodness and Mercy endureth
forever and ever.
Also, to my beloved parents Mr & Mrs Obatoye for their
moral and financial support, may you live to eat the fruit of
your labour, God bless you (Amen).
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
All praise is due to ALMIGHTY GOD for sparing my life
up to this present moment and to another important stage of
journey through my life.
I wish to express my profound gratitude to my project
supervisor, Dr. Issa Olarongbe Sanusi. Who has always been
a source of inspiration? I am greatly indebted to him for not
only spared part of his valuable but limited time to citizen
and make a necessary concretion in this work but also
recshaped my academic performance. May Almighty God add
this effort to scale of good deeds in the Day of Judgment
(Amen).
Equally,
I
am
greatly
indebted
to
the
Head
of
Department Prof. A.S Abdussalam and all my lectures in the
Department of Linguistic and Nigerian Language University of
Ilorin. Who over the year taught me formally and informally
not only something about linguistics but also life as a whole, I
thank you all for the knowledge imparted in me, your advice
and encouragement.
iv
I am extremely grateful to my parents, Mr. & Mrs J.O /
R.O Obatoye. For their love, kindness, prayer and financial
support, again a great debt is owned to my beloved brothers
Mr. Sunday Obatoye and Mr John Obatoye and their wives
and children, also the family of Pastor & mrs. Amos Grace
Agboola for their prayer and financial support during my
programme.
Once again, to my elderly ones Obatoye Peter, Obatoye
Isaac and Obatoye Felicia thank you all for your love and
support.
I Also, owned indebtedness to my friends Ayoade
Olatoyan, Ojo Olaniran, Okunlola Paul, Jesumbo, and my
room mate, Ife-Oluwa thanks you all for your advice,
encouragement, love and prayer support for me you were all
there when I needed you, may the Lord bless you all. Thank
you all.
v
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
NP
-
Noun Phrase
N
-
Noun
C
-
Complemantizer
Det
-
Determine
Sov
-
Subject, Verb, Object
PS
-
Phrase Structure
FC
-
Focus Construction
CP
-
Complementizer Phrase
PM
-
Phrase Marker
TNS -
Tense
D.S -
Deep Structure
S.S
Surface Structure
-
Pres -
Present
Pro
-
Pronoun
Aux -
Auxiliary
[ ]
Represents Phonetic Boundary
-
[/] -
Represents High Tone
[\] -
Represents Low Tone
vi
( ) -
Brackets
VP
-
Verb Phrase
AP
-
Adjectival
PP
-
Prepositional Phrase
Spec -
Specifier
I.P
Inflectional Phrase
-
Conj -
Conjunction
//
-
Phonemic representation
t
-
Trace

-
Re-write arrow
Deg -
Degree
Agr
-
Agreement
V
-
Verb
P
-
Preposition
Adj
-
Adjective
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page
i
Certification
ii
Dedication
iii
Acknowledgment
iv
List of Symbols and Abbreviations
vi
Table of Contents
viii
CHAPTER ONE
1.0
Introduction
1
1.1
General Background of the Study
1
1.2
Historical Background
3
1.3
Socio- Cultural Profile
5
1.3.1 Cultural Values
6
1.3.2 Governance/Administration of Koros
6
1.3.3 Religion and Festivals
8
1.3.4 Marriage Rites
9
1.3.5 Burial Rites
10
1.3.6 Attitude and Cultural Beliefs
11
viii
1.4 Geographical Location
12
1.5 Economy
13
1.6 Education
14
1.7 Relationship with Neighboring Town
14
1.8 Genetic Classification of Koro-Ija Language
15
1.9 Scope and Organization
18
1.10 Theoretical Framework
19
1.10.1 Government and Binding Theory
20
1.10.2 Sub-Theories of Government and Binding
22
1.11 Data Collection
26
1.12 Data Analysis
29
CHAPTER TWO: BASIC PHONOLOGICAL AND SYNTACTIC
CONCEPTS
2.0
Introduction
30
2.1
Basic Phonological Concepts
30
2.1.1 Sound Inventory of Koro-Ija Language
31
2.1.2 Consonants System
32
2.1.3 Syllabic Consonants
34
ix
2.1.4 Vowels System
34
2.1.5 Tone System in Koro-Ija Language
38
2.1.6 Function of Tone in Koro-Ija Language
40
2.1.7 The Syllabic System of Koro-Ija Language
41
2.2
44
Basic Syntactic Concepts
2.2.1 Phrase Structure Rules
46
2.2.2 Noun Phrase
48
2.3.3 Verb Phrase
49
2.2.4 Adjectival Phrase
52
2.2.5 Prepositional Phrase
54
2.3
56
Lexical Categories
2.3.1 Nouns
56
2.3.2 Pronouns
60
2.3.3 Verbs
65
2.3.3.1 Tenses in Koro-Ija Language
66
2.3.3.2 Aspects in Koro-Ija Language
67
2.3.4 Adverbs
68
2.3.5 Adjectives
71
2.3.6 Prepositions
73
x
2.3.7 Conjunctions
75
2.4
Basic word order in Koro-Ija Language
76
2.5
Sentences
79
2.5.1 Simple Sentences
80
2.5.2 Compound Sentences
82
2.5.3 Complex Sentences
85
CHAPTER THREE: THE NOUN PHRASE
3.0
Introduction
88
3.1. Noun Phrase
88
3.1.1 The Noun Head in Koro-Ija Language
89
3.1.2 Position of Noun within the NP
92
3.1.3 Co-Occurrence of an NP with Adjectives
94
3.1.4 Co-Occurrence of and NP with Determiner
96
3.1.5 Co-Occurrence of an NP with Preposition
98
3.2
100
Functions of Noun Phrase
3.2.1 Noun Phrase as Subject of the Sentence
100
3.2.2 Noun Phrase as an Object of a Verb
102
3.2.3 Noun Phrase as Indirect Object of a Verb
104
3.2.4 Noun Phrase as an Object of a Preposition
106
xi
3.2.5 Noun Phrase as Complement of Preposition
109
3.2.6 Noun Phrase as Subject of a Sentence
111
3.2.7 Noun Phrase as Appositive in the Objective
113
3.2.8 Noun Phrase as Appositive in the Subject Position 115
3.3
Embedding in NP
116
3.4
Noun Phrase with Post Modifiers (IN) ‘With’
118
CHAPTER FOUR: TRANSFORMATIONAL PROCESS
4.0
Introduction
120
4.1
Transformation Process
120
4.1.2 Movement
123
4.2
125
Focus Construction
4.2.1 Subject – NP Focusing
126
4.2.2 Object – NP Focusing
129
4.2.3 Indirect Object – NP Focusing
131
4.3
Relativization
133
4.4
Reflexivisaton
138
xii
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0
Introduction
143
5.1
Summary
143
5.2
Conclusion
145
5.3
Recommendations
145
References
147
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
This chapter focuses on the General Background to the
study, the historical background, social-cultural profile,
cultural values, Genetic classification, and Data collection,
Analysis of the data and Review of the chosen framework.
1.1
General Background to the Study
Nigeria is a multi-lingual country-blessed with about
512 languages (Gojeh, Jatau and Mammah 1998). Spoken
within and outside the country, but only few of these
languages have been committed to writing. Interestingly, this
xiii
work
is
language,
ultimately
a
targeted
language
at
without
ensuring
orthography
that
Koro-Ija
occupies
it
dignified position by way of making explicit what is implicit
about the language in record time.
This study focuses on the aspects of Noun phrase of
Koro-Ija language. The language is spoken in some parts of
Plateau, Kaduna and Niger States.
It is spoken by the population of about 150,000
speakers. (Gordon 2005). They are majorly known as Rugo
among themselves, the language is predominantly spoken in
ija-koro village, Tafa Local Government Area of Niger State.
The Koros people are administered by clan hands and
they are assisted by the chivies. The migrated from Zana
emirate i.e the Kingdom of Kwararafa which date back to 19th
century also by Gordon (2005). The person that led the
migration was called Najaja. He is a hunter, Ija-Koro was
derived from his name. His fact that the place is comfortable
for him, which is known as Koro.
xiv
As an introductory, chapter, I shall focus firstly on the
historical background of Ija-Koro, Socio-cultural Background,
Genetic Classification, Scope and Organization of the study,
Theoretical framework and Brief Review of the Chosen
Framework, Data Collection and Data Analysis.
Bearing in mind that a community without a written
orthography is tantamount to a society without an identity.
My
mission
is
that
after,
putting
forward
my
contribution, this language (Koro-Ija) will be able to compete
favourably
with
the
superior
ones
that
have
wider
representation. I hope that my target shall meet the need for
which it is intended.
1.2
Historical Background
There exist many versions of the origins of the Koro-Ija
language. Some primary and secondary sources of oral bases,
assured monolithic origin for the Koros. However, all these
contradictory versions reflect migrations and interrelations.
xv
According to Na’ibi and Hasan in their book ‘A chronicle
of Abuja’
‘Another popular legend of the Koros claimed that they
were evidently influenced by the attempt to link their origin to
the universal perspective and centres of old civilization. This
legend claimed that one Koro and his younger brother Jukun
were born east of Mecca and settled in “Apa”, which became
the capital Kwararafa Kingdom. He was blessed with four
children named Igala, Nupe and two daughters, Igbala in turn
begot Alago and Idoma, one of the daughters of Jukun begot.
Ankwe (Gojeh and Jatau 1998:9).
From linguistics evidence of some Koro the legend of
Koro and his brother Jukun were not from Mecca. Infact,
some Koro, Kanun, Jukun and Arab do not belong to the
same linguistic group as evidenced in the recent linguistics
classification of Gordon (2005).
The above legend contradicts the oral account narrated
by Sarkin Muhammed Yawa, the present village head and
14th chief of Ija-Koro village.
xvi
According to him, a group of Koro people left Zaria area
on a hunting expedition to old Abuja Emirate, years before
the Hausa Zazzau came to Abuja (Suleja) under the
leadership of Shiwoyi who later became the first chief of IjaKoro. They later discovered that the land was blessed with
thick foliage and more games, they decided to settle very close
to the forest, close to the Kata (Gbayi) people who they met
there and who also welcomed them without any rancour or
bitterness.
1.3
Socio-Cultural Profile
The Koros are known for unshakable peace and
unflinching tolerance even with other distinct neighbours.
The ideal life of the Koros are tolerance and respect for others,
which they believe are indispensable for survival and
productivity. The puzzle of Koro social psychology attracts
scholarly interest to examine the binding forces. Other groups
are most comfortable with them for their human relations,
accessibility, peace and docility.
xvii
They are identified through joking relations, common
facial
marks
sharing
of
foods,
traditional/
cultural
consultation, moving together in the market or social
occasion and sometimes forging common origin.
xviii
1.3.1 Cultural Values
Cultural values are the cherished tradition and ethos,
which are desirable to their society and taken as normative
civilization.
They are expectations and practices that make life
meaningful
and
anticipation
of
better
tomorrow.
One
observable cultural value of these people is good mind and
behaviour and predisposition to work as demanded.
They
values
submissive
character
discipline,
pre-
disposition to obey orders and fulfill responsibilities. This is
re-enforced through organization of age- grades, favour for
the behavoured and punishment for the deviants. They also
love organizing their societies with a structural authorities
some of which are religious and some administrative.
1.3.2 Governance / Administration of Koros
The unit of authority starts with the household under
its
house
head
called
‘Pinwada”
xix
or
“Ikpunkuya”.
The
household heads are answerable to the clan-head (ebe-tuko)
or ward head.
They are also answerable to the village head (Ezmela),
all the village heads are answerable to the chief (Osu) who
might even be the village head. The Osu or Ghere-Ghabin is
turbaned like and emir since colonial days.
The committed leadership attracted the administration
of Arab and European writers and remarked that they were
world famous in governance better than European, Asia or
American systems.
However, the Koro system or government was purely
Confederal arrangements for sporadic consortium against
invaders. In attempt to account for the semi-autonomous
nature
of the
village
groups, some
informants simply
submitted that they were kingdoms independent of external
control and reduced over big settlement into a kingdom.
xx
1.3.3 Religion and Festivals
The Koros are dominantly traditional worshippers with
every families having its own ancestral shrine. There were
also clan shrines (ebe-tukwo). Town shrine and individual or
town cults and sanctuaries (ashma ukuk) many pre-colonial
polities were purely exercising cultural and religions control
of tribes while excluding non-tribe even in the dame
settlement.
Hence,
individuals
and
families
paid
more
allegiance to their king and cultural cum religions heads.
Festivals are organized to unite their entire king far and
near, and their chief priests regarded as rulers or their tribe
only, but without defined territory.
Till now, the Koros are culturally vibrant. There is also
an
annual
festival
called
Kuye,
it
is
celebrated
to
commemorate the death of Nayaja, the great hunter who
emancipated the Koros from the shackles of hukdas and led
them to their, present location. An antelope most be castled
as the festival rites or atonement. However, some of these
xxi
festivals have reduced in importance because of the influence
of western education.
1.3.4 Marriage Rites
Just like any other tribe or language, marriage is a sinqua-non
(necessity)
to
human
existence;
hence,
it
is
unavoidable to any society. It is the only universal approach
to procreation. The koros engage in union through secret
negotiation between the family of the bride and the groom
initially, the groom and the bride are secluded from this
arrangement. This is so because, premarital intercourse is
forbidden in Koro tribe.
Marriage ceremony here is garnished accomplished with
different traditional display among which is the physical
combat between young boys, unlike in other parts of Nigeria
where marriage is celebrated in the daytime. In Ijakoro,
celebration galore starts at night with intriguing traditional
dances maiden (s) are on ground to entertain guest with
terrific dance step. There is a traditional method during
xxii
marriage rites called “keep chance” this is employed when the
stage is overcrowded.
One distinctive thing about their marriage is that a girl
of 14 or 15 may be given out in marriage.
Finally, every father in Koro sees it as a pride to witness
the marriage of his son. The father may cast a cause on the
son, if he decided not to marry as at when due or at the
appropriate time.
1.3.5 Burial Rites
Death is accompanied just like any other tribes with
sorrow and agony people gather at the village square. The
relations come out in mass with their various masquerades
and they were traditionally expected to dance till down, before
the deceased will be curial to the grave, the masquerades
jumps over the corpse sever times.
Relatives, friends, sons and grandsons spray money on
the corpse as transport for his journey to his ancestors. A
masquerades shout indicates readiness for the burial.
xxiii
The corpse will be carried shoulders high in readiness
for the grave. The specialists known as “Abuyo” are waiting
for the corpse behind the graveside to do the burial proper.
Another specialist waits at the inner room of the grave
waiting for the corpse. Finally two negative are called to bid
the corpse goodbye.
Seven nights of dancing and a formed ceremony will be
inaugurated as final valedictory service.
1.3.6 Attitude and Cultural Beliefs
The people of Ija-koro were noted for their rich and
catchy culture. The language cultural ethnics and values
advocate for a no limit “respect”. To them, “agrey hair can’t be
purchased from the market”.
The community is a place away from home i.e the
hospitable spirit of its inhabitant is inestimable. Apart from
this, the moral principle of its people transcends the
materialistic ethos of our time.
xxiv
Their maids are not allowed to involve in premarital sex
because it is an abomination (in the past, but not absolutely
this day). This contradicts what is obtainable in this morally
decaying society.
All these fascinating qualities were in evidenced or seen
in the informant’s unselfish disposition to render assistance
whatever the need arises.
1.4
Geographical Location
The Koros are found in the federal capital territory,
Abuja (FCT), Niger and Kaduna States respectively. In
Kaduna State they live together in Kagarko Local Government
Area (LGA) in Koro and Jere Chiefdom. In Niger State, they
live together in Kuta, Chanchanga and Suleja. In FCT, they
live in the whole of Bwarri and Abuja Municipal Area Council
(AMAC).
Their population was given by Barret (1992) as 45,000
(Gordon 2005). There was no estimate for the Koro of
Nassarawa State in Parda, Keiru and Keffi LGAS. The
xxv
population of the Koro of Niger was conservatively put at
150,000 in 2007.
1.5
Economy
Agriculture is the mainstay of the Koro’s economy.
Commercial and subsistence farming are dominant. Yam and
Maize are the major article of trade. The land has varying
proportion of Silica, Salt, Nitrogen and phosphorus. It is
alluvial and sticky in the paddy areas and sandy on the up
lands and fertile. They make plants grow well.
The boom in agricultural production is related to the
fertility of soils. It is interesty to note here that faming in this
region
is
of
great
antiquity.
The
ethnobotanical
and
archaeological findings suggest that farming date back to
3,000 BC.
However, agriculture here did not possess the rich
potentialities that belonged to it in the other regions
Agricultural produce are sold in a weekly market called IjaKoro market.
xxvi
1.6
Education
It is beyond the shadow of doubt that, the issue of
Western education in today society if dominant and nearly
unavoidable Ija-koro, a small speech community in Tafa Local
Government Area of Niger State is exampled forms this so
called nomenclature.
The land of literacy is very low among the Koros to the
extended that nearly 85% of the Ija-Koro people can neither
read nor write.
Since the languages have not been committed to writing
there is a very clear indicates that, it is not a language of
education. Contrarily, it possible for a Koro teacher to codemix i.e adapts his/ her native language in teaching. This is to
ensure clarity and brevity in explanation.
1.7
Relationship with Neighbouring Town
The immediate neighbouring towns and villages to Ija-
Koro include Koro-Zuba and Ija-bwari. They are friendly with
their neighbour it usually attracts something good to them.
xxvii
The Koro people find it extremely easy to interact with
neighbours since they were mostly polyglot. Apart from this,
the similarities in lexical items of the people and their
neighbour
bridges
the
gap
of
communication
barrier
commercial linkage is established at a very convent form.
1.8
Genetic Classification of Ija-Koro Language
Languages are related to one another, some are more
closely related while others are distantly related. On the basis
of these relationships, languages are classified into families or
phyla, within each family various sub-division can still be
established.
The classification of African languages, distinguished
four major groups called phyla namely: Afro-Asiatic, NigerKordofanian, Nile-Shoran and Khoisan. Only three of these
families are represented in Nigeria majority of Nigeria
languages
belong
to
Niger-Kordofanian
coincidentally is my major concern.
xxviii
phylum
which
Koro-Ija is a sub-division of Niger-Kordofanian what is
Genetic classification?
It is the sub-grouping of all relevant languages into a
genetic. This is away of classifying all languages that are
related into one group, domain or Node.
A node is a group of language that are closely related to
the other than to any language outside the group.
The other group Niger-Congo has more than 1,000
languages and they have about 180million speakers while
Kordofanian over area of concentration is Benue-Congo which
is a sub-group of Niger-Kordofanian where over language of
specification is found.
Meek quoted by Gojeh, Jatau and Mamah (1998:18)
classified it simply as:
“Nigerian semi-Bantu with no further Finenent Gordon’s
(2005) linguistics family tree tracs Koro to have originated
from among the Niger-Congo group of languages through the
Atlantic Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Plateau Western
to North Western Koro.
xxix
Niger-Kordofanian
Niger-Congo
Mande
Atlantic Congo
Ijoid
Atlantic
Kru
Defoid
Kwa
Edoid
Kordofanian
Nupoid
Volta-Congo
North
Volta-Congo
Idomoid
Benue-Congo
Igboid
Cross-river
Kanji
Bantoid
Platois
Tarokoid
Souther
n
Berome
Yeskwa
Gyongic
Koro-zuba
Ndumen
Koro
Alume
Hyanic
Ija-Koro
Ninzic
Jiju
Jijilic
Adapted from Roger Blench (2006)
xxx
West
Tyap
East
Tyap
North
1.9
Scope and Organization of the Work
This project describes the structure of Noun phrase in
Koro-Ija language. It aim at studying the language and to
know more about Koro-Ija language as much had not been
written about it. It is in view of this that I decided to study the
aspect of Noun phrase in Koro-Ija language.
This research work is divided into five chapters, chapter
one deals with general background, historical background,
socio-cultural
profile,
genetic
classification,
Theoretical
framework, data collection and data analysis, scope of study
and brief review of chosen framework.
Chapter two covers the basic phonological concept i.e
sound inventory, tonal system and syllable structure and
basic syntactic concepts which included, phrase structure
rules, lexical categories, basic word order and sentience
types.
The third chapter deals with the syntactic focus area
that is Noun phrase of Koro-Ija language, function of Noun
phrase.
xxxi
Chapter four is all about the syntactic transformational
processes that
occur
in
the
language
such as
focus
construction, Relativization, Passivization, question formation
and negation.
The last chapter, which is the fifth deals with Summary,
Conclusion, Recommendations and References.
1.10 Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework of this research project is
based on the generative grammar popularized by Chomsky
and other linguist. This helps in the description of word found
in the language as in the analysis of the data collected from
the native speakers with the use of descriptive grammar.
The syntactic part of this research is based on the
Government and Binding theory, which incorporate the
theory of the structure of phrases known as x-bar syntax.
This is aimed at expressing general phrase structure of all
human language rather than features that are particular to
one part of a language or to a single language.
xxxii
This theory proposes that there are certain modules,
which conspire to tell a native speaker of a language that a
grammar is correct. There are various segments that work
together to let a speaker know that his grammar is right,
these segments are called modular grammar some of these
modules are: projection principle, x-bar theory, theta theory,
case theory, binding theory, bounding theory, control theory,
government and binding theory.
All these modules conspired to show that there is
something universal about languages the government and
binding theory incorporated all these together to show the
relationship between the modules of grammar under the
Government and Binding theory is shown below, this shows
the relationship between the principles and sub-theory of
Government and Binding theory.
1.10:1Government and Binding Theory
Government and Binding Theory (GB) will be used in
the analysis of noun phrase in Koro-Ija language. This theory
xxxiii
is a modular deductive theory of universal grammar (UG),
which posits multiple levels of representation related by the
transformational rule (moved). However, it is more advanced
theory of Universal Grammar. Sanusi (1996:19-21)
Haegman (1991:13) defined Government and Binding
theory as the theory of universal grammar which is the
system of all the principles that are common to all human
languages. Government and Binding theory is otherwise
known as principle and parameters theory. In GB theory, the
grammar is a continuous interaction between component and
sub-theories embodying different principles and parameters.
Again, Sanusi (1996:21) explained that Government and
Binding
Theory
greatly
eliminates
proliferation
of
transformational rules, like passive, affix-hopping, verbnumber agreement, question formation, equi-NP deletion,
raising, permutation, insertion e.t.c.
Government and Binding theory operate through the
Modules of grammar like Government, case, theta, control,
binding, and bounding and x-bar theory.
xxxiv
1.10.2 Sub-Theories of Government and Binding
Horrock (1987:29) stated that, the lore grammar of a
given language is derived from the interaction of sub-theories
of Universal Grammar. There sub-theories are inter-related
that each of them can account for grammatically or
ungrammaticality of any sentence. These sub-theories are:
x-bar theory
Case theory
Government theory
Control theory
Binding theory
Bounding theory
Theta theory
The above listed sub-theories are diagrammatically
represented below to show the inter-relationship among them.
xxxv
X-bar Theory
The projection
Lexicon
Principle
Case Theory
Bounding
Theory
Movement
 - Theory
 - Criterior
S- Structure
PF Component
Adopted from Cook (1988:33)
LF Component
X-bar Theory
Base on appropriate analysis for the research work, xbar is the theory to be adopted for comprehensive analysis.
Chomsky (1986:3) is of the opinion that x-bar theory in
one or another of its variants, lexical entrails can be limited to
minimal from with indication of no more than inherent and
selection features and phrase structure rules can apparently
be dispensed with entirely, a highly desirable move for
familiar reasons.
xxxvi
Cook (1988:94) explains that x-bar syntax replaces large
number of idiosyncratic rule with general principles, it
capture properties of all phrases, not just those of a certain
type, and it bases the syntax on lexical categories that link
with entries in the lexicon.
Haegman (1994:104) stated that x-bar theory is the part
of grammar regulating the structure of phrase.
Webelbum (1995:18) however, explained that, x-bar
theory is the central Module of the principle and parameters
approach in syntax.
A phrase in x-bar syntax always contains at least a
head as well as other constituents Cook (1988:94).
The head of the projection is zero projection (x0) heads
are terminal modes, they dominated words x-bar theory
distinguishes two level of project complement combines with x
to form x1 projection X’ to from X’ projection (X  X’. YP). The
specified combines with the topmost X’ to form the maximal
projection XP (XP spec; X’)
xxxvii
XP
Spec
X1
X
YP
Adopted from Haegman (1994:105)
Indeed, it is shown above that, the liner order of the
constituent with respect to the head of the project is not
universally fixed.
However, as proposed in Chomsky (1986a) every
maximal projection (XP) has as specified of XP position, the
intermediate X1 projection serving as XP’s core where the
cone consists of the head.
(X0) and the compliment, which can be a maximal
projection on it own.
xxxviii
XP
Spec
(Core which is recursive)
X0
Complement
Due to the fact that, X-bar theory bring out, what is
common and constitute the structure of phrase. X-bar theory
will be the applicable theory to be used in the analysis KoroIja Noun phrase.
1.11 Data Collection
Samarin (1967:43) say:
“The kind of corpus a field researcher
obtains is determined by the purpose
and techniques he adopts in his data
collection”.
The focus of this research is largely and primarily for
language description.
xxxix
There are two types of data collection they are:
Information method
Introspective method
The introspective method is kind of method where by
the investigator serves as his or her own informant.
The informant method is a type that relies on the
knowledge of the native speaker of the language understudy
for purpose of collecting data.
In this research work the method I used is informant
approach, I was able to visit the village called Ija-Koro in Tafa
Local Government of Niger State. During the visitation I was
able to come across two competent native speakers of the
language (Koro-Ija). Below are pieces of information about the
informants.
Name:
Jubril Galadima
Sex:
Male
Age:
40years
Occupation:
Teacher
Number of years spent in the village: Since birth
xl
Name:
Alhaji Mohammed Bawa
Sex:
Male
Age:
65years
Occupation:
Makele (Blacksmith)
Tittles:
Village Head
Number of years spent in the village: Since birth
During the interaction with the informants I was able to
present to them the Ibadan worldlist of 400 items, which I
asked them to be calling it for me in their native language.
The informants were able to call each item for me 3 times for
the sake of clarity.
I also make use of framework technique, which is the
basis for collecting syntactic data on the language of study, in
other to make it easier to determine the actual underlying
from of constituent and syntactic context in which a word or
constituent occur within a grammatical sentence and also to
determine the basic word order.
xli
1.12 Data Analysis
To ensure an efficient data analysis this research, all
data received are transcribed. The morpheme that makes up
the phrases and sentences are also carefully glossed.
The data collected are worked upon, according to how
the native speakers use it without imposing any extraneous
rules or norm of correctness.
xlii
CHAPTER TWO
Basic Phonological and Syntactic Concepts
2.0
Introduction
This chapter deals with phonological and basic syntactic
concepts of Koro-Ija language. The phonological concepts like
sound system which consists of vowel and consonant system,
tone patterns, syllable structures and syntactic concepts like
phrase structure rule, lexical categories, basic word order and
sentence types.
2.1
Basic Phonological Concepts
Yule (1985) submits that phonologic is concerned with
the abstract or mental aspect of the sound in language rather
than with actual physical articulation of speech sound.
Phonology is defined as the study of speech sound. It is
the study of sound patterns and systems in a language.
Phonology essentially deals with a description of system
and the pattern of speech sound in a language. It is based on
a theory of what every speaker of a language unconsciously
xliii
knows about the sound pattern of the language. It is related
to phonetic, it is a step further ahead phonetic.
Adolf Noreen talked about speech sound, according to
him:
“A speech sound is a group of sound
which are phonetically similar and
whose divergences are not use for
linguistics purposes”.
The basic concept of phonology is phonemes. A
phoneme is said to be phonemic, if it constitutes a change in
the meaning of the affected words.
Phonological processes refers to type of change or
changes which occur (s) in the sound system of different
language especially when two morphemes or word are
combined.
2.1.1
Sound Inventory of Koro-Ija Language
Sound is the smallest unit of speech that causes a
displacement of the air drum speech sounds are made in the
xliv
mouth, nose and throat with the help of the part of the body.
However, not all part of the body is used for sound production
and those used are only performing that function as
secondary in order words, sound is a smallest linguistics unit
which can be treated in isolation and multiple combinations.
No language or the world operates without a sound system
Koro-Ija language i.e a language spoken in Tafa Local
Government of Niger State also possess its own sound
system.
2.1.2 Consonants System
Consonants are sounds produce with partial or total
obstruction of the airstreams. A consonant may be voiced or
voiceless depending on the place of glottis or the mechanism
put in place.
Parameters for describing consonants
Place of Articulation
Manner of Articulation
State of the glottis
xlv
Central or lateral articulation
Velic opening
The Alphabet are listed below:
a, b, by, d, e, ç, f, g, gb, gw, h, i, j, k, kp, kw, l, m, n, mw,
ch, gh, tw, o, ô, bw, p, r, s, sh, t, ny, gj, ng, u, v, w, y, z, zh, nw.
Koro-Ija language attests thirty-two (32) consonant
sounds, both voiced and voiceless.
b, d, f, g, gb, h, j,k, kp, kw, l, m, n, mw, ch, gh, tw, p, r, s,
sh, t, ny, gj, w, ng, v, y, z, zh, by, bw, nw.
Fricative
f, v
Affricate
Nasal
m
mw
s, z
ჳ
t
dჳ
n
ɲ
Lateral
l
Trill
r
Approximant
w
j
xlvi
Glottal velar
k,g
kw
gj
kp gb
gh
Glottal
Labio velar
tw
Palatized velar
t d
Labialised
velar
bj
Velar
bw
Palatal
Labialized
alveolar
b
Alveolar
P
Palatilised
bilabial
Labio dental
Stop
Labialised
bilabial
Bilabial
Consonant Chart of Koro-Ija
h
Ŋ
Ŋw
2.1.3 Syllabic Consonants
Syllabic consonants are those consonants that occur
with syllable peak, in other word they can take the place or
represent in syllable analysis. They bear a tone just as if they
were vowels. We therefore call them syllable Nasals
2.1.4 Vowels System
Vowels are sounds product without any obstacle of the
airstreams coming from the lung. In other word they are
sound
produced
with
little
or
no
obstruction
of
the
airstreams. Unlike consonants, all vowels are voiced because
they are produced when the vocal cords are had closely
together in such a way that the air capillary vibrates. Vowels
are prominent in all hum languages in that they form the
nucleus of all words. The vowel the vowel system of different
language may very in terms of number, for instances, English
attest five vowels, and Yoruba attest seven vowels. Likewise,
Koro-Ija language, a noticeable feature of all vowels is that
they share common harmony, which we shall discuss later.
xlvii
We have the oral and the nasalized vowels in Koro-Ija
language.
Oral Vowels
Orthography
a
e
ç
i
Transcription
a
e
ε
i
Orthography
an
en
çn
in
Transcription
ã
ĕ
o
o
ô
u
‫כ‬
u
Nasalized Vowel
ĩ
on
ôn
õ
ũ
Vowel Charts
Oral vowels charts
(unrounded)
(rounded)
Front
High close
Mid-high close
Mid-high close
(Half open)
Central
Back
u
i
e
o
ε
‫כ‬
a
Low (open)
xlviii
un
Examples from the data
/i/ - /igwὲrὲ/ (climb)
/ìlάά/ good morning)
/e/ - /ènóma/ (meat)
/èvúam/ (nose)
/ε/ - /etaa/ (hand)
/ὲtúkwá/ (woman)
/a/ - /akí
bí/ (money)
/awã/ (teacher)
/o/ - /oríré/ (swallow)
/òfõ/ (tail)
/‫כ‬/ - /‫כ‬b‫כ‬re/ (full)
/‫כ‬naa/ (grind)
/u/ - /rùnú/ (soup)
/kútá/ (thing)
Nasal Vowel Chart
(unrounded)
(rounded)
Front
High close
Mid-high close
Central
Back
ũ
ĩ
ẽ
õ
Mid-high close
(Half open)
ã
Low (open)
xlix
Examples from the data
/ĩ/ - /kuwĩ/ (faeces)
/ã/ - /wã/ (come)
/ẽ/ - /mi hẽ/ (bee)
-
(lick)
/õ/ - /òfõ/ (tail)
/ / - /kaw / (mosquito)
/ũ/ - /rìfũ/(body)
Long Vowels
Unlike English language where dot is used to indicate vowel
length in Koro-Ija, the most convenient way to write long
vowels is by doubling the vowel.
Examples are:
/Òjíi/
‘lose’
/mimìí/
‘look for’
/kùnáa/
‘grinding stone’
/kunέὲ/
‘bird’
l
/ek/
‘strong’
/kulée/
‘eight’
/mànée/
‘oil’
/kùrúun/ ‘knee’
2.1.5 Tone System in Koro-Ija Language
All Nigeria languages except Fulfulde are tone language
that is the pitch of the voice can make a different to the
meaning of the words. Tones serve as pitch in language to
distinguish
lexical
and
grammatical
meaning.
To
distinguished or inflect words all languages use pitch to
express emotional and other paralinguistic information. It can
also be used to convey emphasis, contrast and other such
features in what is called into nation but not all language use
tones to distinguish words or their inflections, analogously to
consonant and vowels. Such tonal phonemes called ‘toneless’
Tone also plays almost no grammatical role in many
African tone languages, such as beauty language; however,
tones are distinguished by the relative level. Koro a Niger-
li
Congo language is tonal. The language attests to register
tones. In order to ensure a local explanation, there is need to
explain the term ‘Register’. Register tones are tones that can
be measured in terms of a regular pitch range. The pitch
difference is intertwined with a vowel phonation.
According to Pike (1957), it defines a tone language as a
language having significant but contractive pitch on ach
syllable.
Also Welmer (1973) view tone as when segmental
phonemic and non segmental phonemic enter into the
composition of some morpheme. When you refer to two level
of tone can be attested.
According to Welmer, he brought down the meaning of
tone into simplicity. Tones may be transcribed in many ways;
it is represented on a syllable.
High Tone
(/)
Low Tone
(\)
Mid Tone
( - ) it is unmarked
lii
Examples from our language of interest;
High Tone:
/kíw/
‘Navel’
/kúwó/
‘fear’
/ódà/
‘word’
Low Tone
/òè/
‘God’
/jὲ/
‘eat’
/rìẽ/
‘abuse’
Mid Tone
/kige/
‘town’
/rufo/
‘play’
/kugo/
‘house’
2.1.6 Functions of Tone in Koro-Ija Language
It brings about change in meaning
It brings about easy reading for non-indigenous speakers.
It brings different meaning of word in the same graphical to
structure of segment.
liii
It gives a clear meaning
A tone is said to perform grammatical function, if it
brings a change in the meaning of two words having the same
or similar graphical representation. Causes like these are
attested in Koro-Ija languages.
/énwé/
(sun)
/ènwé/
(day)
/ruwẽ/
(ground)
/rùwẽ/
(earth)
2.1.7 The Syllable System of Koro-Ija Language
The fact that syllables are important units if illustrated
by the history of writing syllables have gained academic
recognition because of its role in language analysis but get,
there are no acceptable phonetic definition for it. But, it is
often convenient define it depending on how it function.
Syllables can be precisely termed as the smallest part of a
word which can be pronounced at a breath. The native
speaker of a language with a high degree of reliability is in a
liv
vantage position to analyze the no syllable inherent in each
word.
According to Malmberg (1963:129) a syllable consisting
of a consonant plus a vowed is the oldest of all syllabic types,
the only one which is general in all languages.
A syllable can be conveniently broken into three broad
categories viz:
The Nucleus
This is the core of a syllable it marks the boundary of a
syllable. It has priority it occurs at the syllable peak.
The Onset
It simply the first consonant in a syllable for instances;
torn-taste. The‘t’ in tore is a typical example of the onset from
my observation; both vowel and consonant dominate the
initial position in Koro-Ija language.
lv
The Coda
It is final consonant in a syllable Koro-Ija language
doesn’t attest to the coda.
Types of syllable in Koro-Ija or open syllable, a syllable
can either be a closed or open syllable.
We
have
CV
structure:
according
to
Malmberg
(1963:129) a syllable consisting of a consonant plus a vowel is
the oldest of all syllable types, the only one which is general
in all languages.
We have in Koro-Ija language:
VCV structure
CVCV structure
CVCVV structure
VCCV structure
Examples of syllable structure are:
VCV Structure
i.
/òlá/ -
‘Fire’
/eʤi/ -
‘Smoke’
VCV
ii.
lvi
2.2 Basic Syntactic Concepts
Syntax is the aspect of grammar that deals with how
words are put together to form sentences and how such
sentences are interested in natural language, Yusuf, (1992:1).
Syntax as a branch of linguistics, uses words as
building blocks that are put together in a Nile governed way.
This is to say that the words are not strung together in a
random order; they follow rules allowed by human language.
Yusuf (1997:2) the sentence is made up of words
phrases and clauses. As the level of syntax, the word is the
smallest units, which graduate to a phrase, clause and
sentence.
Syntax is the study of the arrangement of words to form
sentence. In speech, the nature speakers of a language put to
bear on the discourse his total knowledge of the language and
his competence.
Syntax is a branch of linguistics; it is a level of language
analysis. It is a word that is derived from current Greek work
which means syn-together tax-arrangement.
lvii
Syntax is a sub-field of linguistic that studies ordering
or arrangement of sentence constituency it is the branch of
language that study grammar.
Yule 1989 defines syntax as a process of setting out
together or arrangement.
Tallerman (2005) defines syntax as the study of
syntactic properties of language, it see syntax as sentence
construction, how word are put together to make phrase and
sentences.
Akmagian etel (2004) see
syntax as sub-field of
linguistics that study internal structure of sentence and
relationship among the internal.
Radford (1997) syntax is concerned with the ways in
which word are to form sentences. A sentence has structures.
When we are talking about syntax, we are referring to
arrangement
ordering
of
words
to
make
grammatical
meaning.
Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that explain the
combinational possibilities of words that are permissible in a
lviii
given language i.e the regular co-occurrence, combination,
arrangement, ordering or better still structural arrangement
of words to form meaningful sentence. It studies the internal
arrangement of structure of a sentence and how these
structures agree with each other.
2.2.1 Phrase Structure Rules
Phrase structure rules are re-write, expansion rules,
very much like the expansion of an icon in the computer,
which displays the content of a phrase or sentence. It is like
opening a box to disclose its contents.
According to Horrock (1987:31), phrase structure rules
are simply formal devices for representing the distribution of
the phrase within sentence. A phrase structure rule is a set of
rules, which generates the constituents of a phrasal clause
category (Yusuf 1997:6).
Chomsky (1986) identifies four phrase types related to
lexical categories. Verb phrase, Noun phrase, prepositional
phrase and adjectival phrase. These phrases are the maximal
lix
projection.
(xps)
of
the
lexical
heads.
(Verbs,
Noun,
Preposition and Adjective) respectively.
The phrasal categories in Koro-Ija are: phrases are built
around a ‘skeleton’ consisting of two levels as depicted below.
AP
NP
VP
PP
_____ Phrasal Level
A
N
V
P
_____ Word Level
The phrase structure component states the linear
organization
of
Transformational
the
constituents
grammar
rules
of
depend
an
on
utterance.
the
prior
application of phrase structure. In this chapter, I will examine
the phrase structure component. Phrase structure rules are
rules of the base component which insert words into their
logical positions in a structure.
In transformational generative grammar sentence can
be dividend into constitute verb. We have each word of the
sentence belonging to a phrase and this we now forms part of
the sentence phrase structure rule are ways to described the
syntax of a language and it is use basically to break
sentences dawn into a constituent part.
lx
As was mentioned earlier the native speaker does not
string words together randomly Stockwell (1977). He follows
specific ordering which makes his speech uniform with other
speakers. In short, native speakers behave as if they know the
rules of the language. It is this innate knowledge of the rules
that we try to capture in the study of syntax Yusuf (1997:2).
2.2.2 Noun Phrase
The noun phrase is the categories that code the
particular in the event or state described by the verb. It is
headed by a Noun pronoun. The main phrase can also be
found in different constituent in the sentence, it can be found
in the subject position, object position or as object of the
preposition, Yusuf (1992:5)
Examples of Noun phrase in Koro language
Èyá kúma nìchôo
The boy
tall
‘The tall boy’
lxi
Èyàn túkwan
The child female
‘The female child’
Kinee kiburôn
Bird a black
‘A black bird’
Noun phrase in Koro-Ija would be discussed in the next
chapter, which is the focus of study.
2.2.3 Verb Phrase
The verb phrase, according to Yusuf (1997:21) is
traditionally called the ‘predicate’ because it has the sentence
predicator namely the verb; the verb is the head of the verb
phrase.
It
is
lexical
category
that
tells
us
what
he
participatory roles of the nominal are in the sentence. It
expresses or allocates roles to Noun phrase in the sentence.
The verb phrase is a group of word which has the main
verb as a head. Its structure is determined by the type of verb
that exists in the constituent. In the same manner the verb
lxii
type is determined by the sub-categorization features of the
verb.
The verb phrase consists of a verb alone or a verb with a
complement and or an adjunct whichever, situation obtains,
the verb services as the head of the verb phrase. Other
categories that complement the verb are also as the phrasal
categories of their respective word classed. For instance, a
verb can be transitive in which case, it selects co-occurs with
an object or two, or intransitive in which case it co-occurs
with or without adverbials.
Koro-Ija, like Yoruba and ever other language, attests
verbs and verb phrases with or without the satellites. The
structure of Koro-Ija verb phrase is described with the
structure in below:
1. VP
V (NP) (PP) (S’)
The structure in (1) above is exemplified in (2) below
Yin Kokolo ni kìkàwô
Kick ball with leg your
‘Kicked the ball with your leg’
lxiii
The structure of Koro-Ija verb phrase is described with
the structure below.
1. VP
V (NP) (PP) (S’)
VP
V1
NP
V
N
Yin
Kokolo
PP
P
NP
ni
Pr
wo
ii.
Dua kubvon wásere èkpàré
Use knife cut meat
‘cut the meat with the knife’
lxiv
2.2.4 Adjectival Phrase
Adjectival phrases do normally co-occur with Nounphrases. They function as either complement or adjunct of
the
noun
Radford;
(2002:28)
Adjectival
phrases
are
obligatorily headed by adjectives. In Koro, Adjectival phrase
performs with attributive and complement functions. The
phrases can ether consists of an adjectives or adjectives with
modifiers.
Adjective phrases usually occur before nouns (as
attributes) and after verbs as predicative adjectives. The
Adjectival phrase usually has an adjective as its head and it
can be pre-modified by adverbials.
Below is the phrase structure rule for Koro-Ija Adjectival
phrase
ADJP
ADJ (ADV) (PP)
The structure in the example above is exemplified below.
Ònomo machin
Beautiful very
‘Very beautiful’
lxv
Ègén manç
Lazy too
‘Too lazy’
Machin yínmiyìnmì
Very gentle
‘Very gentle’
Below is the phrase structure rule for Koro-Ija Adjectival
phrase.
Adjp
(i)
Adj
Adv
ègén
manç
large
too
lxvi
2.2.5 Prepositional Phrase
The prepositional phrase headed by a preposition
function as either complement or adjunct to the Noun head or
the verb, it is very related to the Noun phrase because it
contains a prepositional phrase is closely related to the Noun
phrase. In this case, the preposition is the head and it
precedes the NP in the PP.
In Koro-Ija, the prepositional phrase codes several
information like location, manners and instruments. The
prepositional phrase has its complement, the noun phrase.
The structure of Koro-Ija prepositional phrase is described as
in the example below
PP
PNP
The structure above can be exemplified as in below
ni kupwa
at door
‘at the door’
nudi kitnìkne
in mosque
lxvii
‘in the mosque’
ku alafin
on table
‘on the table’
The structure of Koro-Ija prepositional phrase is described
below
PP
P
NP
ni
N
at
Kupwa
door
lxviii
PP
P
NP
nudi
N
in
Kunike
mosque
2.3
Lexical Categories
Awobuluyi (1978:1) defines lexical classes as “words
that behaves in similar ways in the sentence of a language
when we talk of lexical classes of words, we are talking about
their categories in language.
2.3.1 Nouns
Stockwell (1977:48) defines noun
as symbols for
entities, abstract or concrete, countable or uncountable
(mass) animate or inanimate, human or non human, etc.
Bamgbose (1967:8) defines as Noun as a word which
can occur independently or with qualifies in the nominal
groups. This means that Nouns can generally be classified
into the followings: Animate, Inanimate, Concrete, abstract,
countable and uncountable Nouns.
Acoording to Awobuluyi (1978:7) any word functioning
as the subject of a verb or preposition in a grammatical
sentence in the language is a Noun.
Examples of Noun in Koro languages is as follows
lxix
/kubia/
-
‘book’
/èkũmà/
-
‘man’
/kúláye/
-
‘food’
/kùgàsa/
-
‘bag’
/mikũ-ĩ/
-
‘rat’
/kàmágùrù/
-
‘cat’
/èkúnkua/
-
‘woman’
/èdé/
-
‘cloth’
/èkú/
-
‘husband’
/èkuma/
-
‘wife’
/kùkópi/
-
‘cup’
/kùuaa/
-
‘stone’
Types of Noun
The type of Noun in Koro language would be classified
according to their functions and meaning. These Nouns are
discussed under the following sub headings; human, nonhuman,
concrete,
abstract,
place
Noun,
uncountable, animate and inanimate Noun.
lxx
countable,
Collective Noun
These are Nouns that refer to a group of similar objects
or people in similar circumstance. They are also called “class
Nouns”. These Nouns are used to denote a collection of things
or persons.
Examples
Adi amukuli
bunch key
bunch of key
Kujie emaga
flock sheep’s
a flocks of sheep’s
/Atʔ.ngo/
People players
A term of players
lxxi
Adi she
Shemm bee
Swarm of bees
/kùye/
-
/atoni.edefuvogi/ -
Audience
Police
Abstract Noun
These are means that relate to ideas as opposes to
concrete objects. They denote qualities abstracts noun
material Nouns. They refer to notions such as quality, state or
action. They are intangible so they cannot be discerned with
the senses of small, touch and taste e.g
/kúneó/
-
Fear
/ògée/
-
Anxiety
/rídúnyán/ -
Sadness
/kumóñ/ -
Joy
/ègya/
Love
-
/osúnsún láfía/ - Peace
lxxii
Concrete Nouns
These refer to tangible objects which can discern with
any of the five senses.
Compound Noun
This is a combination of Noun as base (s) with a
preposition (plus or minds an article) and which may be
linked by hyphen.
Examples:
/kàcíi-kalagíéwo/
-
Chalk-board
/etorinkakun/
-
Gentile –man
/kudiayĩrĩáwã/ -
Class room
/èkúmariua eyàkúsà/ -
Boy friend
/kùdí àwa kùpíp/
-
Book shop
/kùgàsà kulaayírala/ -
School bag
2.3.2 Pronouns
Pronouns constitute a heterogeneous class of items with
numerous subclasses. Despite their variety, there are several
lxxiii
features that pronouns have in common, which distinguish
them from nouns.
Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns take the grammatical slots of specific
names of persons, places or things. As indicated in the table
below, the are both subjective and objective personal
pronouns
PERSONAL PRONOUN: SUBJECTS, OBJECTS
Singular
Subject
Object
1st person
/mi/(I)
(me)
2nd person
/èwo/ (you)
/èwo/ (you)
3rd person
/eyç/çyç/nu/ (He/She/it)
è/è/nu/(him, her, it
Subject
Objects
1st person
/ètu/ (we)
/dúkàtú/ (us)
2nd person
/èwo/ (you)
/èwo/ (you)
3rd person
/là/ (they)
Èla/ (them)
Plural
lxxiv
Reflexive and Emphatic Pronouns
They have ending “self in their singular from and
ending” selves in their plural form. As the nature
implies, these pronouns reflect another nominal clement
of the sentence, usually the subject with which it is in
co-referential relation i.e it replace a co-referential NP
normally within the same finite verb.
Examples:
Reflexive Pronouns
/èmíté/
-
myself
/èlate/
-
themselves
/ètute/
-
ourselves
/núwété/ -
yourself
Emphatic Pronouns
/Nìyete/
-
she herself
/èyçte/
-
he himself
/nujete/
-
it itself
lxxv
Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun is used to introduce a clause that
modifies the noun which occurs earlier in the sentence.
They play dual roles, both as pronouns and as
connectives word which preceded it and to which it
refers:
Example
of
Relative
Pronoun
in
Koro-Ija
as
as
nominal
language are the followings:
/èyá/
-
who
/èyá/
-
whom
/màana/
-
that
/elaya/
-
whose
/káyii/
-
which
Demonstrative Pronouns
This
class
has
determiners
well
functions. It also displays number contrasts. The general
meanings of the two sets of demonstration pronouns can be
stated as near and distant. “This and “That” as singular
lxxvi
“These” and “Those” are plurals. Demonstrative pronouns
have several uses. They function to indicate contrast as in.
They have number contrast (singular & plural) and
function both as determines and pronouns.
Singulars
Plurals
/kùkʔ/
-
This
/alà/ -
These
/màána/
-
That
/εla/
-
Those
Possessive Pronouns
These show possession and have two forms. A form
functions as an adjective and it referred to as pronominal
adjective, which other one is a pure pronoun and function as
such
Singular
Adjective
form
Plural
Pronoun
form
Adjective
form
Pronoun form
1st person
/mi/ (my)
/umi/ (mine)
/tu/ (our)
/átu/ (ours)
2nd person
/wʔ/ (your)
/wʔ/ (your)
/wʔ/ (you)
/kuwʔ/ (yours)
3rd person
/ed/ (his)
/e/ (his)
/ala/ (their)
/álalá/ (their)
/e/ (her)
/e/ (her)
/ala/ (their)
/àlalá/ (theirs)
/nu/ (its)
lxxvii
2.3.3
Verbs
Awobuluyi (1978:45) described verbs as words which
express actions event and processes.
It is evident that verbs are identified manly by their
functions in constructions and their main function according
to Awobuluyi is predication. A verb is a word or group of
words that expresses an action.
Examples of verb in Koro-Ija language:
/jĩ/
-
‘kick’
/gbẽ/
-
‘slay’
/riho/
-
‘length’
/tè/
-
‘cook’
/ribvo/
-
‘play’
/ríwá/
-
‘dance’
/gé/
-
‘write’
/eláa/
-
‘sleep’
/ètũmá/
-
‘walk’
Iyons (1975) defines the verbs as a word belonging to
that part of speech that characteristically is the syntactic
lxxviii
nerve of a predicate and expresses an act; occurrence or
mode of being which in various languages is inflected for
agreement with the person and number of the subject for
tense, moral or aspect.
2.3.3.1
Tenses in Koro-Ija Language
Tenses are the forms of verb that show the time
(continuous or completion) of an action or state, e.g present
tense, past tense, past progressive tense, past perfect tense
etc.
It has been noted by many scholars. See Banjo (1969)
many Nigerian languages do not have tense markers as found
in English language.
However, Koro-Ija language has distinct tense markers
similar is done by prefixing an item as determined by the first
phoneme of the beginning of the second syllables of the form.
lxxix
Examples:
Present Tense
Past
Present continuous
jʔ (Go)
èjʔ (went)
èjóo (going)
Rivʔʔ (play)
Ruvʔʔ (played)
Ruvʔʔ (playing)
wíi (sweep)
èwìi (swept)
òwìì (sweeping)
gun (sun)
ègun (saw)
ogun (seeing)
sunsun (sit)
èsunsùn (sat)
èsúnsun (sitting)
káso (cry)
kàso (cried)
kàso (crying)
zhʔʔ (laugh)
Rìzhʔʔ (laughed)
rizhʔ(laughing)
2.3.3.2
Aspects in Koro-Ija Language
It is time that sometimes the different between tense
and aspect can constitute analytical problem in some
construction. As pointed out in Iyons (1968), the two are
distinct systems. However, especially when see the two as
perfectives, (tense) and imperfectives (aspects). For example,
they used to be an assumption that some Nigerian languages
do not show aspectual Banjo (1969).
lxxx
Perfective Form
Progress Form
/re/
-
have
/mI/
-
form
/ekaa/
-
has
/eze/
-
am
/màkáà/
-
had
2.3.4
Adverbs
An adverb modifies or qualifiers as verb as its major
grammatical assignment. It also tells more about an adjective
or another adverb.
Adverb generally precede the adjective or the verb
phrase they describe, since most verbs as well as attributive
adjectives occurs in the middle position in a sentence
nucleuses the adverb will normally in the middle or the final
position the nucleus.
The main function of adverb is to modifiers verbs, an
adverb therefore modifies a verb, an adjective, another
adverb, a preposition or even noun, altering in some ways it
meaning or range.
lxxxi
An adverb modifies or qualifies a verb as its major
grammatical assignment.
Types of Adverb
Adverbs are different types which depend on the context
of usage. We have the following forms of adverbs in Koro-Ija
language.
Adverbs of Time
This describes the time when an action occur or takes
place
Examples:
/kuje/
-
Tomorrow
/muẽ/
-
Yesterday
Adverb of Concession
This adverb admits the fact concerning an action.
Example:
/mànáré/ -
usually
/kùtata/
/regular/
-
lxxxii
Adverbs
This expresses the extent or limit of a thing. Examples:
/PÍÌ/
-
Quite
/kumaʒũ/ -
Quickly
/ PÍÌ PÍÌ/
Very
-
Adverbs of Manner
This type of adverb tells us how an action occurs:
/òsára/
-
Quickly
/wʔtέyὲ/
-
gently
/ PÍÌ PÍÌ/
-
silently
/múgʔ/
-
seriously
Adverbs of Reason
This shows the cause of an action why an action take
place.
Examples:
/dũmu/
/tũ/ -
-
because
since
lxxxiii
Adverbs of Frequency
This expresses or indicates the number of occurrences
/kùtata/
-
regular
/òkwàkekwàkè/ -
seldomly
/okwàkèkuàké/
rarely
/kùtata/
-
regularly
Adverbs of Condition
When the occurrence of an action is tied to another’s
action;
Examples:
/ń/
-
if
/ńweja/
-
unless
Adjectives
Everyman’s Encyclopedia (1977:76) defines adjectives
as a part of speech used with a noun or substance, to express
its qualities or attribute.
More information about a noun or a pronoun in a
sentence Smith (1955:43), according to Awobuluyi, (1978:30)
lxxxiv
any word or grammatical combination of words which
qualities a noun is a qualifiers, in other words, an adjective
qualifies a noun.
Adjective are traditionally described as word that are
used to qualify noun. That is, they amplify the meaning of
noun, Adegbija (1987:100).
The followings are some of the adjectives in Koro-Ija
language.
/tukúrí/
-
small
/tá/
-
few
/núka/
-
plenty
/okutakata/
-
large
/katita/
-
long
/kùtákátá/
-
big
/kòsísá/
-
new
/òpĩ/
-
hot
lxxxv
Comparison of Adjectives
Adjectives have three degrees of companies (positive,
comparative and superlative).
Examples:
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
Chákátá (big)
chákátá (bigger)
Chákátá-zin (biggest)
Sára
ésã sara (faster)
Èsán-ansara-zin (fastest)
Títńe (short)
esã títńe (shorter)
esã títńezin (shortest)
Chʔ (tall)
esã choon (teller)
esã chon-zĩ (tallest)
Emirĩ (heavy)
easa emìrín (heaver)
esã emirĩzĩ (heaviest)
Za (thin)
esã za (thiner)
esã za-zĩ (thinnest)
Jĩni (small)
esã jĩni (smaller)
esã jĩni-zĩ (smallest)
ʔnʔmʔ (beautiful)
esãnʔmʔ
beautiful)
(fast)
They
mark
the
(more esã-nʔmʔ-zĩ
beautiful)
superlative
with
prefixation
(most
and
suffixation while they mark the comparative with prefixation.
2.3.6 Preposition
Smith (1965:46) defines a preposition as any word that
relates a noun to a verb in terms of direction or location.
lxxxvi
Microsoft Encarta (2002) defines preposition as “a words
that combine with a noun or pronoun to form a phrase. A
preposition relates a noun to verb in terms of location,
direction, state, condition etc. i.e it shows relationship
between two independent objects.
A preposition is defined as “a word which expresses a
relation between two entries.
QUIRK and GREENBAUM, (1979:143) the entities can
be a noun and a verb, pronoun or nouns, the word
“preposition” comes from the Latin language and means “
something placed before” a noun. It governs a noun or a
pronoun in a sentence, such a noun or pronoun is known as
object of the preposition.
Examples of preposition in Koro-Ija language are:
/Nachĩ-ĩ/
-
Among
/núshá/
-
beside
/nì/
-
over
/nijã/
-
on
/nìme/
-
in
lxxxvii
/nímʔ/
-
at
/nìwẽ/
-
inside
/míchá/
-
outside
/Nìcháshĩhĩ/
-
below
2.3.7 Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word or group of words that joins
words or groups of words together. Conjunction essentially
performs a linking function to show a kind of relationship
between them.
Types of Conjunction
There are two major types of conjunction in Koro-Ija
language, namely, co-ordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions.
Co-ordinating Conjunction
These join words, phrases or two main clauses
together.
Examples:
/ni/
-
and
lxxxviii
/na/
-
with
Co-ordinating Conjunction
These are words used to relate minor or dependent
clauses to major clauses.
Examples:
2.4
/ýweja/
-
unless
/ũ/
-
since
/ń/
-
if
Basic Word order in Koro-Ija Language
Every language has a basic order. Greenberg (1966:74)
describes word order as the manner the subject, verb and
object co-occur many simple declarative sentence. According
to Lyons (1968:203), ‘the sentences may be regarded as a
combination of morphemes which occur in a particular order
relative to one another’s; six different forms of possible basic
word order are identified by Greenberg (1966:76). They are as
listed below.
lxxxix
Subject verb object
SVO
Subject – object - verb
SOV
Verb – subject – object
VS0
Verb – object – subject
V0S
Object – verb- subject OVS
Object – subject – verbOSV
According
to
Greenberg
(1966:76)
only
the
three
normally occur in dominant orders. These are SVO, SOV and
VSO. The other three do not occur at all or are excessively
rare. It should be noted that no language rigidly keeps to an
order. This is because the order or words might change as a
result of transformation.
As in standard Yoruba, Koro-Ija operates an SOV word
order. SVO languages are prepositional likewise Koro-Ija as
exemplified earlier under preposition phrases.
Koro-Ija operates and SVO word order but as earlier
said, we can determine that by knowing the classes of the
words in the language. Examples can be shown below.
xc
Ejçkob gé kalagìe wó
‘Jacob write a book’
S
V
O
Ç yç kulayç
He eat food
S
V
O
‘He ate food’
Danladi ewo kwuin
Danladi (pst) kill rat
‘Danladi killed the rat’
Mi duani mite
I do (pst) myself
S
V
O
‘I did it myself’
Rukayah nupia ku alafun
Rukayah write on table
S
V
O
‘Rukayah writes on the table’
xci
2.5
Sentences
Sentence is described as a construction that has a
subject, predicate and object. It is a construction that has its
constituent NP subject with Infl and a VP object.
A sentence can be defined as a unit of language that is
made up of one or more words. In other words, a sentence is
meaningful way of bringing a group of words together. A
groups of words must contain a finite verb for it to be a good
sentence in English.
The sentence is defined as “the largest unit about which
grammatical statement are to be made (Halliday 1956, in
Kress 1976:37).
According to Radford (2002:55) sentences are built up
out of sets of constituents, each of which belongs to a specific
category’s
made
up
of
structured
sequences
whereby
phonemes are grouped together into word, words into phrases
and phrases into sentences.
I will briefly look at the sentences as a unit. Three
sentence types are recognized in the language.
xcii
2.5.1 Simple Sentences
A
simple
sentence
usually
contains
one
main
independent clause, without a sub-ordinate clause at all.
However, though the idea may not be modified by any
number
of
modifiers
and
the
subject
may
also
be
compounded in nature.
A simple sentence is defined as a sentence that
described one event or state of action.
Examples:
Ç yç kulayç
He eat food
‘He ate the food’
Danladi wí kudi
Danladi sweep room
‘Danladi swept the room’
mi duani mute
I do (pst) myself
‘I did it myself’
xciii
Ç yç kulaye
He eat food
“He ate the food’
IP
NP
I1
P
I1
ç
TNS
pst
VI
V
NP
yç
N1
Kulaye
(ii) mi duani mite
I do (pst) myself
xciv
IP
NP
I
I1
I
V1
TNS
pst
V
NP
do
N1
did
N
Myself
2.5.2 Compound Sentences
A compound sentence as its name implies, is a
combination of two or more simple sentences, main clauses
joined together by a co-ordinating conjunction or a correlative
conjunction. The main clauses of a compound sentence may
also be joined together by a colon (:), a comma (,) or a
semicolon (;).
xcv
A compound sentence is described as a multiple of
simple sentence joined together by the use of conjunction.
SNP – INFL VP (conj’s)2
Examples:
ègún sì rìgén atorinyenla nìgè nikunayen
I see village head teacher and his wife
‘I saw the village headmaster and his wife’
Danladi eyin ònùnùgàma lara kùdi
Danladi knock gage enter room
‘Danladi knocked the gage and he entered the
room’
Danladi ègyá niran àmá ezana èyànkúhá éébà
Danladi love Niran but marry girl another
xcvi
IP
IP
IP
Conj
NP
I1
àmá
N1
N
Danladi
NP
I1
N
VP
Spce
V1
VP
I
TNS
PST
V1
V
NP
ègyá
N1
V
ezaa
N
Niran
NP
D
éébà
N1
N
èyaýkúshá
xcvii
2.5.3 Complex Sentences
This is traditionally defined as a main clause and a
number of subordinate clauses. A complex sentence has an
embedded sentence in one phrasal category.
Quick
(1972:342)
defines
complex
sentence
as
a
sentence which contains more than one clause.
According to Yusuf (1997:63) the complex sentence has
a sentence embedded more of the phrasal categories. The
complex sentence has a main clause with one or more
embedded or sub-ordinate clause and as stated earlier the
embedding could be in the NP or VP.
Examples:
E yana emana ekumi la akekula age
That is the boy that steal (PS) pen
‘That is the boy that stole my pen.
ç káayí dumu èyá mu agô
He failed because he (neg) not serious
‘He failed because he is not serious’
xcviii
Olu àyá wèé náyè 1974 èrún wúwàyçç yçnà
Olu who has born 1974 celebrate birthday today
‘Olu who was born in 1974 celebrated his birthday
today’.
xcix
NP
N1
spec
CP
N1
N
spec
Olu
WH
àyá
C1
IP
C
spec
I1
I
TNS
PST
VP
V1
beten
wèé
V
náyè
PP
P
NP
N1
N
VP
1974
V1
V
NP
èrún
N1
spec
N
ewan
c
wuwayçç
ADVP
Adv
yçnà
CHAPTER THREE
THE NOUN PHRASE
3.0
Introduction
This chapter focuses on the noun phrase of Koro-Ija
language, especially; we are going to examine the position of
noun phrase in a given sentence. Also, functions performed
by noun phrase are discussed. Our analysis are carried out
within the framework of Government and Binding Theory
which is otherwise known as Principles and Parameters
theory
3.1
Noun Phrase
According to Stockwell (1977:55), noun phrase is a
cluster of words in the surface strings of which the nucleus is
noun.
Yusuf (1997:8) defines noun phrase (NP) as the category
that codes the participant in the event or state described by
the verb. This NP’s is headed by the noun or pronoun. It is by
ci
virtue of the headedness that phrase is called the noun
phrase. However, Yusuf (1998:34) states that:
“Noun phrase can contain indefinitely any number of
the satellites, whatever it may contain it has to have a noun
head, noted technically as N0 but which as we have repeated
will be coded plan N”.
Collins (1990:212), described Noun phrase grammatical
structure based on the multiple function.
In discussing the noun phrase in Koro-Ija language, we
will look at how NPs are generated and categorized. Various
linguists have defined noun phrase in various ways. The
noun phrase in can be found in different position, object
position, in the subject position, object of preposition etc.
However, it consists of the noun and its head which is
discussed below.
3.1.1 The Head Noun in a Noun Phrase
The head is the obligatory part of the noun phrase
around which other constituents cluster and it also dictates
cii
concord with other pasts of the sentence. This means that the
head can be single word as we have in Koro-ija language
below:
È yantúkwán
Det girl
‘The girl’
E kuma
Det man
‘The man’
E yákúma
Det boy
‘The boy’
ciii
NP
spec
N1
Det
N
NP
È
yantukwan
civ
spec
N1
Det
N
È
kuma
3.1.2 Position of Noun within the NP
Structurally, nouns come first in Koro-Ija noun phrase
and the satellites of the noun follow the noun in NP. The
satellite could be determiners, prepositional phrase and soon.
The structural position of NP in Koro-Ija may illustrated as
shown below.
NP – spec N1
N1 – N, pr (AP), (PP), (Conj), (Det).
Also, there are conjunial noun phrase in Koro-Ija
language which join together with conjunction element.
The following examples gibe the structural types of NPs
in Koro-Ija language.
Examples include:
Kuma in kunayen
Man and wife
‘The man and his wife’
Atóchin nì funmì
Preacher and friend
‘The preacher and my friend’
cv
Emallami ni Audu
‘Mallam and Audu’
Kawa ni tonìguma
Doctor and patient
‘The Doctor and the patient’
Kaakumma ni kilegun
Old man and sea
‘The old man and the seas’
NP
spec
N1
N
conj
N
Kawa
nì
toruguma
Doctor
and
Patient
cvi
NP
spec
N1
N
conj
N
Atochin
ni
Funmì
Preacher
and
Friend
3.1.3 Co-occurrence of an NP with Adjectives
Examples include:
yankusha ônômo
girl beautiful
‘beautiful girl’
kilagiewó narenômô
book interesting
‘interesting book’
cvii
NP
spec
N1
N
AP
yankusha
A
ônômô
girl
beautiful
NP
spec
N1
N
AP
kilagiewö
A
book
narenômô
interesting
cviii
3.1.4 Co-occurrence of an NP with Determines
Structurally, both Nouns and determiners come first in
Koro-ija language and determinations in Koro-ija include both
post and pre-modifiers.
Examples:
ùgàsà mi
bag my
‘my bag’
ùgàsà na
bag the
‘the bag’
kilagewoo atu
book your
‘your book’
E kunma
the man
‘the man’
A wankwsha
the girl
‘the girl’
cix
NP
spec
N1
N
Det
ùgàsà
mi
bag
my
NP
spec
N1
N
Det
kilagewôô
atu
book
your
cx
3.1.5 Co-occurrence of an NP with Preposition
Examples
níchaa kudi
outside room
‘outside the room’
kukwo niyan kupia
on (Det) table
‘on the table’
Na alayenrala
In market
‘in the market’
cxi
PP
spec
P1
P
NP
Nícháa
N1
outside
N
N
Kudi
room
cxii
Functions of Noun Phrase
In Koro-Ija language, functions that, the noun phrase
performs include:
Noun Phrase as Subject of the Sentence
Adamu yìn núnùdi
Adamu knock gate
‘Adamu known the gate’
Ekue èlà nudi
Old woman sleep room
‘The old woman sleeps in the room’
Yankuma egben eyakusha
boy slap the girl
‘The boy slapped the girl’
cxiii
IP
I1
spec
N1
VP
1
NP
TNS
AGR
V1
NP
N
V
N1
Adamu
yìn
N
+ PAST
núnùdi
cxiv
IP
I1
spec
1
NP
TNS
N1
VP
AGR
NP
V1
+ PAST
N
yankuma
V
spec
N1
egben
Det
N
è
yakusha
3.2.2. Noun Phrase as an Object of a Verb
Examples:
Sadiq egben atoyinrala
Sadiq slap teacher
‘Sadiq slapped the teacher’
cxv
IP
I1
spec
N1
VP
I
NP
TNS
V1
NP
N
V
N1
Sadiq
egben
N
slap
atoyinrala
AGR
(+ PAST)
Sadiq
teacher
cxvi
3.2.3 Noun Phrase as Indirect Object of a Verb
NP as indirect object of a verb, the indirect object is the
person for whom or to whom or they thing for which an action
is performed.
Examples:
Eyunmukuma eha eyantunkwa naa akibi
(Det) brother give (Det) girl her money
‘my brother gave the girl her money’
Etoyinrala, eyinrin yankuma na ebiye
(Det) teacher show boy his talent
‘The teacher showed the boy his talent’
cxvii
IP
I1
spec
Det
VP
I
NP
N1
TNS
Agr
NP
V1
(+Pst)
è
N
(Det)
toyinrala
teacher
V
eyinrin
show
cxviii
IP
N1
spec
N1
yankuma
Det
N
boy
na
ebiye
his
Talent
N
Noun Phrase as an Object of a Preposition
Ela kuyoyo ni punudi
she lying against wall
‘she is lying against the wall’
IP
I1
spec
1
NP
N1
TNS
VP
AGR
NP
V1
+ PAST
PP
N
V
Ela
kuyôyô
P1
NP
she
lying
P
N1
ni
N
against
Punudi
wall
cxix
Wantukwa tiyage larila nudi
girl write outside room
‘The girl is writing outside the room’
cxx
IP
I1
spec
N1
VP
I
NP
Agr
TNS
NP
V1
(+Pst)
PP
spec
N
V
wantukwa
tìyágè
P1
NP
girl
write
P
N1
larìla
N
outside
nudi
room
cxxi
Noun Phrase as Complement of Preposition
Examples:
Suleman ye nuku kusha
Suleman eat with spoon
‘Suleman ate with the spoon’
cxxii
IP
I1
spec
N1
VP
I
NP
Agr
TNS
NP
V1
(+Pst)
PP
spec
N
V
Suleman
ye
P1
NP
Suleman
eat
P
N1
nuku
N
with
kusha
spoon
cxxiii
Noun Phrase as Subject of a Sentence
Examples include:
Sadiq èrè kawa
Sadiq is doctor
‘Sadiq is the doctor’
Adamu ere etôyinrala
Adamu is teacher
Adamu is a teacher
Musa etö edìí
Musa person drive
Musa is the driver
cxxiv
IP
I1
spec
N1
VP
I
NP
TNS
V1
NP
N
V
N1
Sadiq
èrè
N
is
kawa
AGR
(+ PAST)
Sadiq
doctor
cxxv
3.2.7 Noun Phrase as Appositive in the Objective
An appositive is a noun which renames the same person
or object in the subject position and which immediately
follows the noun it renames.
Examples:
tukwan egun Mrs Ali eshiriche atoyinrala
woman see Mrs Ali head teacher
‘The woman saw Mrs Ali the head mistress’
Eshiriche atorinyala eta Rukayah ehinche egama awa
head teacher made Rukayah head girl
‘The principal made Rukayah the head girl’
cxxvi
IP
I1
spec
N1
VP
I
NP
Agr
TNS
NP
V1
(+Pst)
N
V
tukwan
egun
woman
see
NP
N1
N
MMrs. Ali
Det
eshinrinche
head
N1
N
atorinyala
teacher
cxxvii
3.2.8 Noun Phrase as Appositive in the Subject Position
Example:
Danladi kumatôrôgô ere tomachin
Danladi man Koro is nice
Mr Danladi the Koro man is nice
IP
spec
I1
NP
I
spec
TNS
NP
VP
AGR
V1
(+ PST)
N1
N
N1
N
N1
V
Mr Danladi
Kuma
man
A
N
ere
Danladi
AP
tôrôôgô
is
Koro
cxxviii
tomachin
nice
Embedding in NP
Embedding here usually introduced by a WH word like
who, what, which or that lexical items are traditionally
referred to as relative pronouns.
The embedded clauses are closer than others while
behave his mere parenthetical information.
Example:
Kusôô nile mague kalagewôô
house where I buy book
‘The house where I bought the book’
cxxix
NP
N1
spec
CP
N1
kusôô
house
C1
spec
wh
nile
IP
C
where
I1
spec
NP
N1
VP
1
N
P
ma
I
cxxx
Tns
Agr
(+pst)
V1
N1
V
N
gue
kalagewôô
buy
book
3.4
Noun Phrase with Post Modifiers (IN) with
Examples:
yankuma eta nikularuro
boy is Jean
‘The boy in Jeans’
tunkwa na wan
woman with baby
‘The woman with the baby’
wantukwa nature kunnande
lady with belt
‘ladies with belt’
cxxxi
IP
I1
spec
1
NP
N1
TNS
VP
AGR
PP
V1
+ PAST
PP
N
yankuma
P1
NP
boy
P
N1
eta
N
in
nikularuro
jean
cxxxii
CHAPTER FOUR
TRANSFORMATIONAL PROCESSES
4.0
Introduction
This
chapter
will
examine
the
transformational
processes such as focus construction, relativization and
reflexivization, in Koro-Ija language.
4.1
Transformational Processes
Transformational is define as the process by which the
structure of one sentence is changed to another structure. It
is a king of device used by a speaker of a language to express
his meaning in a different way either for stylistic purpose of
emphasis. Transformation performs a lot of operations.
Tomori, (1977:64) Citing Allen and Buren (1991:36)
describes transformation as underlying principle operating on
a given string with a new derived constituents structure,
identified in the literature as with syntactic process under
laid by movement transformational processed attest in KoroIja language.
cxxxiii
According to Malmjaer (1991), transformational rules or
process consist of two parts of a structural analysis (∫1)
specifying the input to which the rules applied and structural
change (∫c).
Transformational processes are ways in which the basic
sentences
transform
into
surface
form.
However,
transformational rules are applied to the deep structure of a
sentence of derive surface form.
Radford (1998:401) defined transformations as the
process where deep structure and surface structure are
interrelated by a set of movement rules.
Yusuf (1992:138), defined transformations as the way
we relate some sentences to some other basic sentences.
Cleaning that some sentences types are formed or derived
form the basics. An active sentence can be changed to passive
one or a simple declarative sentence to interrogative through
the use of transformation.
cxxxiv
Sells (1985:15) a transformational grammar takes a
lexicon and phrase structure rules and transformation into
new structures.
Yusuf (1997:67) however explained that the syntactic
level is made up of two subcomponents known as the Deepstructure and surface structure.
The deep-structure is derived by the base rules.
Categorical
rules,
strict
sub-
categorization,
selectional
restriction and the phrase structure rules. He further
explains that transformation operates on the D-structure to
map it into the surface structure.
Cook (1988:21) described the principle movement as a
transformation that has subsumed many separate rules
previously knows as transformations. Radford (1989:419)
surface structure is general from the deep structure by the
application of movement transformation called move alpha.
Cook, (1988:31) transformational process is represented
in a tree diagram know as the T-model as shown below.
cxxxv
D- Structure
Transformation
n
S-structure
PF Component
LF Component
4.1.2 Movement
Movement is described as the major syntactic process in
transformation. This is a process whereby an items is moved
form its original site or extraction site or landing site.
Movement also means an operation by which a word or
phrase is moved some element is moved from it based basic
location in linear order as generated by the phase structure
rules and adjoined into some other category. (Yusuf 1997:74)
movement is a major syntactic process where an item is
moved
from
transformation
it
original
that
site
involve
to
another
site
and
movements
are
focusing,
cxxxvi
the
relativization, passivization, affix-hopping and relexization
(Yusuf 1992:138). But this research word shall focus on
transformations like, focusing, passivization relativization and
reflexization.
According to Radford (1985:401), movement in move
alpha involves moving an NP, INFL, VP and WH phrase. These
types of phrases constitute the types of movement in
Government and Binding Theory. The moved constituents
always move from a lower to a higher position in any given
structure, never from a higher to a lower position.
Movement theory within the GB theory involves three
thins:
These are:
Extraction site
Landing site
Intervening gap
According to Yusuf (1997:128) extraction site explain
the point where a constituent is moved from NP, WH or INFL
lading site, explains where an element is position. The
cxxxvii
movement could be either by adjunction or substitution.
Intervening gap, explains the position that is left empty
through
the
introduction
of
the
co-indexation
(ti)
co-
referential (ei) items.
4.2
Focus Construction
Focus construction is one of the transformational
processes attested among natural languages. What makes it
universal is the fact that normal for a speaker of a language
to want to emphasize a specific aspect of his message while
communicating with his/her interlocutor. This speaker does
employ special mechanism called prominence to the aspect of
important in his message.
According to Stockwell (1977) defined focus as a way of
introducing special marking into the surface structure of the
element or constituent is being focused.
Focusing construction according to Ore Yusuf (1989:57)
and many other scholars in linguistics absence that focus is a
kind of emphasis that is syntactically mark through a
cxxxviii
movement transformation in standard Yoruba and many
other Nigeria languages.
To show the ‘derived’ focus sentences form the basic
sentence. It is necessary to have normal construction that is
basic as the un-marked sentence while the derived sentence
is referred to as marked sentence.
Focuses construction is a kind of emphasis that is
syntactically marked through transformation markers.
In Koro-Ija language any part of the sentence can be
focus i.e subject-NP, object NP, direct and indirect object-NP.
Focus markers are to be examined as they occur within
the subject NP and to her constituent of a sentence.
4.2.1 Subject- NP Focusing
In focusing NP of a sentence, the subject NP must
maintain its syntactic natural position and the focus particle
will be inserted immediately after the subject and follow by
presumptive pronoun. The examples of this in Koro-Ija
language include:
cxxxix
Basic Sentence
Ade êyë alaàbörô
Ade eat rice
‘Ade ate rice’
Derived form
Ade yç èyé alaàbörô
Ade foc eat rice
‘It was Ade that ate rice’
cxl
FP
F1
spec
NP
F
N1
yç
N
FOC
Ade
IP
I1
spec
VP
I
Agr
TNS
V1
NP
V
N1
èyé
N
eat
alaàböro
(+Pst)
Ade
rice
cxli
4.2.2 Object-NP Focusing
In focusing object NP in Koro-Ija language the objects
and NPs will come after the verb in the basic sentence. This is
the focusing of an object NP involved the fronting of the object
and then the insertion of the focus marker. The examples of
this in Koro-Ija language are illustrated below.
Basic Sentence
Abibah ègwè kugasa
Abibah buy bag
‘Abibah bought a bag’
Derived form
Kugasa kuwo Abibah ègwèna
Bag ‘foc’ Abibah buy
‘It was bag that Abihah bought’
Basic Sentence
Ejubrìl èyùn kùkóló
Ejubril kúck ball
Jubril kicked the ball”
cxlii
Derived form
Kùkóló kwo Jubril èyùnrin
Ball ‘foc’ Jubril kick
‘It was ball that Jubril kicked’
FP
F1
spec
NP
F
N1
kwo
N
IP
I1
spec
NP
I1
I
V1
kugasa
N1
TNS
AGR
+ PAST
bag
N
Abibah
Abibah
cxliii
V
ègwèna
buy
4.2.3 Indirect Object –NP Focusing
Examples
Emallam eha mi kalagiewoo alàyínrin
Mallam give me book class
‘Mallam give the book to me in the class’
Derived Sentence
Alayinrin kwo Emallam eha mi kalagiewo
Class (foc) mallam give me book
‘It was in the class that mallam give me the book’
Audu eyinrin yànkúma na ebiye
Audu show boy his talent
‘Audu showed the boy his talent’
Derived Sentence
Ebiye kwo Audu eyinrin yankuma
Talent (foc) Audu show boy
‘It was the talent that Audu showed to the boy’
cxliv
FP
spec
F1
NP
N1
F
N
kwo
alayinrin
class
IP
I1
spec
NP
N1
VP
I
N
Emallam Tns
Agr
NP
V1
(+pst)
mallam
V
cxlv
eha
Pr
N1
give
P
N
mi
kalagewôô
me
book
4.3
Relativization
According to Yusuf (1992), relative construction as
involving the insertion of a relative clause in front of its NP
antecedent in a matrix clause. A clause is relativized when an
NP within it is identical land therefore changed to a relative
pronoun with the antecedent NP of the matrix clause. Such
relative pronouns are moved form their original position to
position of the relative clause.
According to Stockwell (1977:42) ‘A relative clause could
be a sentence embedded in the suitable structure as modifier
of
an
NP,
embedded
sentences
have
within
T1’
WH
pronominal replacement for a deep structure and added
(Adjunct) information.
Relativization is a syntactic process which prevents
unnecessary repetition which can bring about confusion,
though the introduction of relative markers (who, which, that
etc) these relative markers have antecedent that are related to
NP head.
cxlvi
Stockwell (1977:59) defines relative clause as a sentence
embedded into a NP, and marked in some way as subordinate
to the particular noun for which clarity of reference is sought.
Yusuf (1997:100), relative clause is a complex sentence
with some embedded sentences modifying an NP as added
(adjunct) information. Relativization is the sentence type
known as by the move- rule (Yusuf 1997:99).
Relativization is a process whereby an embedded
sentence is linked with the main constituent with the aid of
WH relative pronoun. The various positions in a noun phrase
can be relativized.
Examples:
Basic Sentence
Ekunma ere nikale
(Det) man is nice
‘The man is nice’
Derived form
Ekunma ekaa eze awena nikale
(Det) man who was kill nice
cxlvii
‘he man who was killed was nice’
Basic Sentence
E yankwsha egun la muen
(Det) girl see them yesterday
‘The girl saw them yesterday
Derived Sentence
E yankusha ekaa egun la muen ekú ilá
(Det) girl who see them yesterday asleep
‘The girl who saw them yesterday is asleep
Basic Sentence
È tukwa larinnomo
(Det) woman beautiful
‘The woman is beautiful
Derived Sentence
È tukwa ekaa ete kúláye larinnômô
(Det) woman who cook food beautiful
‘The woman who cooks food is beautiful’
Basic Sentence
iv.
Ali èrún-un ewa wuwayee yena
Ali celebrate (pst) birthday today
‘Ali celebrate his birthday today’
cxlviii
Relp
REL1
spec
NP
REL
N1
ekaa
N
who
yankusha
IP
I1
NP
VP
I
Tns
Agr
NP
V1
(+pst)
girl
V
Pr
Advp
egun
P
see
la
Adv1
Adjp
them
muen
Ad1
yesterday
Ad
ekúilá
asleep
cxlix
Relp
REL1
spec
NP
REL
N1
ekaa
N
who
Etukwa
IP
I1
NP
VP
I
Agr
TNS
V1
Adjp
V
Adj1
ete
Adj
cook
Larinnômô
(+Pst)
woman
beautiful
cl
4.4
Reflexivization
According to Yusuf (1990), Reflexivization is a process of
substituting another type of pronoun for plain pronouns. The
substitutes are reflexive pronouns. As their names indicate,
they refer (to reflect) and earlier NP (Noun Phrase) in the same
sentence,
e.g
i.
Sade Loves Sade
Sade Loves herself
ii.
He laugh at him
He laugh at himself
iii.
The thief killed the thief
The thief killed himself
These reflexives are nest subject of sentence. If they
were, they would not have an antecedent in the same
sentence
as
required
for
their
appropriateness
and
ungrammatically would result i.e herself killed the lion.
Quirk (1972), Reflexivization as pronoun that ends with
self (singular) and selves (plural). These suffixes are added to
cli
the determiner possessive (myself, ourselves, yourselves,
them selves).
In this type of transformation process two identical
nominee co-referential. Relative pronouns show numerous
properties with noun phrase; their distribution is some what
limited.
In Koro-Ija language, reflexivization is used in basic
form.
Examples include:
Emariam égyà Emariam
Mariam love Mariam
‘Mariam loves Mariam’
Derived Form
Emariam egya yëtç
Mariam love herself
‘Mariam loves herself’
Basic Form
La dëç la
they call them
clii
‘they called them’
Derived form
iii.
La elëç latç
they call themselves
“they called themselves’
Basic Form
Ekú ewon ekú
their kill thief
‘the thief killed himself’
Basic Form
cliii
(i)
Reflp
I1
spec
N1
VP
I
NP
TNS
V1
NP
N
V
N1
Emariam
egya
Pro
loves
yëtç
AGR
(+ PAST)
Mariam
herself
cliv
(ii)
Reflp
I1
spec
N1
VP
I
NP
TNS
V1
NP
N
V
N1
Ekú
ewon
Pro
killed
çyçtç
AGR
(+ PAST)
thief
himself
clv
CHAPTER FIVE
Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations
5.0
Introduction
This chapter is set to summarize the research efforts of
the
writer
on
Koro-Ija
and
conclude
with
some
recommendations for further researchers.
5.1
Summary
This research work has examined and discussed the
Noun phrase of Koro-Ija language. Genetically, Koro-Ija
languages belong to Benue-Congo sub-family of the NigerKordofanian family of language. Both the language and its
speakers are popularly referred to by noun-native speakers as
Koro-Ija. But among themselves they are known as Rugô.
This language is spoken as first language in the territory
of Tafa Local Government of Niger State and beyond. The
Koro-Ija people are predominately Muslims and their major
occupations include farming, trading and hunting.
clvi
The data collection and data analysis of the language
were carried out through the use of Ibadan 400 word list,
frame technique and oral interview to ensure copious, ample
illuminating data to give our findings. The brief review of the
chosen framework and x-bar theory of syntax were finally
adopted for the analysis of the language.
The
second
chapter
briefly
reviewed
the
sound
inventory, tonal inventory, and syllable structure and phrase
structure rules. Syntactically, Koro-Ija language exploits SVO
word order in its basic sentence and lexically noun and
pronoun
are
commonly
found
as
independent
lexical
categories.
The third chapter of this work is center on Koro-Ija
noun phrase, the position of noun and its satellites,
modification of noun phrase and function of noun phrase in
Koro-Ija language.
The fourth chapter of this work examined various
transformational process in Koro-Ija language. Such as
relativization, passivization, reflexivization and focusing.
clvii
Finally, the fifth chapter is the summary, observations
in
the
study,
conclusion
of
our
findings
and
recommendations for further researches in the language.
5.2
Conclusion
In our undying quest to understand the linguistic
phenomenon surroundings Koro-Ija language, we have made
an attempt at describing the syntactic process of noun phrase
in Koro-Ija language.
Koro-Ija like other West African Languages is a tonal
language, which operate register tone. However, it is observed
that Koro-Ija language has an SVO word order.
5.3
Recommendations
Despite the fact that, no research work has been carried
out on Koro-Ija language. This word has been able to produce
what we can refer to as pioneer work that can serves as
reference for further studies on the language.
clviii
Thereby, recommended that government institutions
both Federal and State, should encourage programme to
device an orthography for the languages or more research
should be carry out for more information.
Therefore,
we
recommend
that
further
linguistics
researches should be carried out on the aspect of semantics
pragmatics as well as lexicography for the language.
Also, more research word should be done by authors so
as to produce textbooks and post primary studies.
clix
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(1988)
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Hacgman, Lilian. (1991) Introduction to Government and
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Horrock, G. (1987) Generative Grammar: London Longman
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Lamidi, M.T (2005) Aspects of Chomsky on Grammar.
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clx
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clxi
clxii