National Spanish Trails Symposium
Southern Utah University, October 2007
Cedar City, Utah
Interpretation of National Historic Trails
Douglas M. Knudson
President, Old Spanish Trail Association
Introduction
Interpretation of cultural and natural resources makes a trail come alive. Without
interpretation, it’s little more than another path or road to most people. Interpretation
adds value. This paper describes theoretical, philosophical, and research foundations for
interpretation of long distance trails. It then presents problems and strategies for
interpreting the Old Spanish National Historic Trail. Knowing the visitors, guiding them
to experiencing the trail’s mélange of cultures, and helping them develop a sense of place
and time will challenge the interpretive profession and the trail partners.
Why Interpret?
To modify an old William H. Carr statement to fit National Historic Trails:
Not having interpretive services along a historic trail
is akin to inviting a guest to your house, leaving the door
ajar,
and then disappearing.
Interpretation offers many benefits—to society, to the individual, to landowning
agencies, to local economies. A summary of aims of interpretation includes:
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To provoke enthusiastic curiosity about our natural, historical and cultural
environment.
To enrich individual life experiences through education and inspiration.
To develop intimacy with the past and enthusiasm for the future.
To lift people beyond the basic levels of existence to inspiring self-actualization.
To strengthen and sustain human society through social identification with the
land and culture.
To offer footholds of values and truths so we can live peaceably and productively
with the other inhabitants of this planet. (Knudson, Cable, and Beck, 2003)
Research has shown that interpretation makes a positive difference in people’s attitude
and behavior (Fishbein, 1980, Cable et al., 1987, Manfredo, 1992, Widner and
Roggenbuck, 2000, for example).
A National Historic Trail, by definition, possesses significance for all citizens of
the nation. It also can reveal to foreign visitors something of the unique character of this
land. This requires interpretation.
What are we really trying to do with interpretation? You could say, give
directions, put up exhibits, design walking loops, write Trail Profile brochures, design
bus tours, promote special cultural presentations, and give trail talks. That’s the work.
We can move up a notch; consider the motivation for the work. We create rich,
memorable experiences for visitors, while informing them of the historical, cultural
significance of the trail.
But our high-level goal is to build solidarity among and inspire respect for the
diverse cultures and individuals that combine to make the unique character of America’s
Southwest. We seek to elevate visitors’ appreciation and comprehension to build a
stronger society and a firmer belief system. Interpreters do more than build exhibits, give
talks, write signs and brochures. They also build knowledge and create experiences,
increase enjoyment and excitement, and hopefully provoke curiosity, inspire pride, civic
responsibility, and spiritual growth.
Theoretical Foundations
Interpretation theory grew out of educational theory and research. This involves
developmental theories, learning styles, constructivist learning, flow learning, and
various environmental learning strategies. Learning theory, summarized in ten researchderived principles (Pond, 1993; Knudson, Cable, and Beck, 2003:144), can guide
interpretive preparation and presentation.
1. Learning is an act of structuring and relating information and experiences.
2. People process information differently at different ages; different cultural groups
process information differently.
3. A sense of comfort and security affects a person’s readiness to learn.
4. When people feel good about the person facilitating the experience, they care
about and remember the information presented.
5. Most people learn more easily when they use many of their senses.
6. Many people tend to remember most what they do, less of what they see or read,
and least of what they hear.
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7. A variety of approaches to a subject enhance the learning process by making it
more interesting and by meeting the needs of more learners.
8. Self-discovery is a powerful motivator.
9. Organized presentations of information and activities help many people to learn.
10. Repetition can effectively facilitate learning.
Interpretation also borrows theories and results from researchers in communications,
persuasion, psychology, sociology, ethics, and marketing. The professional field itself
has a long tradition based upon experience and critical observation and research. Much
of this has become formalized through tourism businesses (Mills, 1920), natural resource
agencies, and historical organizations (Tilden, 1957/67; Grinder and McCoy, 1985,
among others).
What Does Interpretation Accomplish?
Basic interpretive philosophy and research indicate that interpretation does more
than educate. Its founder recognized its tie to recreation. Interpretation offers the
individual enjoyment–stimulating, pleasurable, compelling fun (Tilden, 1967).
The best interpretation encourages love of place and inspiration (Burroughs,
1916). Enos Mills (1920) wrote that … nature guiding, as we see it, is more inspirational
than informational. Poet-naturalist John Burroughs described a goal to enjoy
understandingly, in a balance of education and recreation.
Interpreters seek to enrich experiences. Maslow (1962) and Csikszentmihalyi
(1975, 1990) described peak experiences that may carry visitors up the ladder of needs to
satisfy their aesthetic and self-actualization needs.
Interpretation benefits society by:
1) Developing leisure skills.
2) Understanding multicultural heritage (Calif. Dept. of Parks and Recreation, 2001).
3) Identifying people with land and culture (Nash, 1982).
4) Developing an ethical sense of place and people’s roles in the world.
Rolston (1988) asserted that we need an art of life. Interpreters contribute to the art of life
by offering rich, enjoyable, and informative experiences. The historical perspective, the
natural phenomena, and the ability to perceive them in context can touch the hearts and
minds of people and change the story of our world (Knudson, Cable, and Beck, 2003).
Challenges of Interpreting Long, Old Trails
Long Distance Trails offer special challenges to interpretive planners.
 They differ from traditional interpretive venues in their length (OSTA has
2700 miles). Most visitors will use only short segments at any time.
 They run through lands under many different ownerships, some of them
resistant to visitors.
 A typical historic trail has no continuous pathway for hikers or riders.
Some segments are under highways; other parts are now country or forest
roads; a few places have the original tread. Many segments of old historic
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trails are inexactly located; contention among local historians may run hot
and heavy as to the “right” route. Thus, the former trail amounts to a route
connecting places that can feature key points that give a sense of history.
Visitors abide by no controlled entry or time schedule. This makes it
difficult and expensive to contact visitors and to get an estimate of visitor
use.
No practical “central” meeting or contact place exists. This makes a
single visitor center impractical except for those who live near it.
The administering agencies (NPS/BLM) have limited funds for
interpretation.
The Old Spanish Trail suffers from a paucity of its written record.
Conoboy (1993) noted that … agencies have not fully staffed and funded their
[long distance trail] programs. He expressed hope for improvement with a then-new
interpretive specialist position for the Santa Fe and Trail of Tears National Historic
Trails. Today, 14 years later, the one interpreter in that position has responsibility for
interpreting a total of nine historic trails. Clearly, personal services on those trails have
to come from other interpreters already working near the trails or from volunteers.
However, historic trails or routes are all about their stories. Without
interpretation, the “trail” will have little identity associating it with past events. As John
Veverka (2000), an international interpretive trainer, emphasizes: Without interpretive
services … you don’t have a historic or heritage site–you have an OLD site. A visitor to
an NHT may see only an old path or a new highway and may not sense its historical
significance unless a sign, a brochure, a book, a map, and/or a personal encounter with an
interpreter points out the story.
Strategies and Methods
To meet these and other challenges, the Old Spanish Trail Association has started
working on a strategy to get interpretation and orientation to as many as possible of the
future travelers and all other American citizens. It uses techniques and principles tested
by professional experience of various agencies and individuals.
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The OSTA Model
OSTA seeks to present interpretation in many places, to many more people than
those who would come to an expensive, single OSNHT visitor center, say in San Luis,
Colorado, or Mesquite, Nevada. These will synchronize with the Comprehensive Master
Plan of the NPS/BLM team. This plan involves existing public facilities that would serve
as contact stations for the OSNHT, distributing information and offering orientation plus
occasional public programs related to the trail.
OSTA’s model of interpretation starts with introducing the trail through its
website, mass media efforts, booklets, and maps. OSTA has identified 40 Trail Partners
who have set up a small exhibit describing the trail and distributed general OSTA
brochures. The Partners consist of public places—local, tribal and state museums, visitor
and tourist centers, a few rural general stores, and several libraries. These will eventually
serve as visitor contact locations all across the six trail states, providing information,
orientation, books, and simple AV presentations. Hopefully, OSTA chapters and
volunteers will be able to present programs at these Partner institutions at various times
during the year. Examples include Great Sand Dunes National Park, Southern Ute
Museum, Virgin Valley Heritage Museum, and the Aztec Public Library.
This strategy avoids investing millions of dollars in a major OSNHT interpretive
center where relatively few OSNHT visitors would ever be served. These large dedicated
centers often eat up hundreds of thousands of dollars in maintenance and programming,
sometimes swallowing 75-85% of the trail’s interpretive budget each year. The federal
agencies have declared no intent of building such a center or even a collection of smaller
centers. The model is to have OSNHT presented to the public through 50 or more
cooperating facilities along the routes of the trail. This will require regular attention to
supplying and enhancing these facilities by OSTA directors and members.
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Interpretation amounts to more than wayside written panels, indoor exhibits and
brochures. For the visitor, it starts with maps to help locate the historic route and roads
that come closest to it. The map can also show a string of “experience nodes” where
visitors can find historical significance, plus diverse activities and a campground or other
accommodation. At these “experience nodes,” history, natural resources, and diverse
recreation come together—perhaps something near one of the old campsites used by the
OST traders. Interpretation goes beyond just what the interpreter does with signs,
brochures, and exhibits. It is what the visitor does—how he/she uses opportunities along
the trail—that builds memorable experiences.
Use Multi-Cultural Interpretation
Interpreting multiple points of view
represents the very essence of good interpretation.
Interpreting for diverse audiences is the effective thing to do.
(Larson, 1993)
The Old Spanish National Historic Trail requires multi-cultural interpretation.
More than a dozen Tribal groups plus many Hispanic communities and many individual
Anglos were involved in and impacted by the trading and emigrant activities on the trail.
Their stories offer a rich multi-layered tapestry to the trail story. Their modern presence
on the National Historic Trail as both storytellers and audience requires design of
interpretation that is both sensitive and proactive in presenting the diverse and often
conflicting points of view. One aim is to present interpretation in a style that will enrich
their experiences and sense of pride.
Research illustrates that interpretive programming needs vary among the different
ethnic and racial groups (Rideout and Legg, 2000). Hilton’s (2000) research showed that
different cultures make different meanings from the same information. A key challenge is
to involve members of the cultures as interpreters and to develop interpretive leadership
among the various minorities (Knudson, Cable and Beck, 2003).
Batten (2005:31) studied Australian interpretation of the Indigenous past. He
concluded that in order to move towards inclusive interpretation of Australian history,
multiple voices and perspectives of the past must be incorporated into interpretive
programs. Efforts in the American Southwest to include Indian and Hispanic voices and
cultures require that the largely Anglo OSTA and administration should continue to invite
participation by those cultures. OSTA should encourage them to develop programs that
allow direct contact with visitors, to whom they can tell their own stories and offer rich
experiences with their own voices and points of view.
Research and Review Content Carefully
Use careful research to develop interpretive content. Avoid speculation,
assumption of modern values, and stereotypes of people and equipment. Note the fine
differences, e.g., mules differ from burros; today’s cowboy hats and sombreros weren’t in
style in the early to mid-1800s among New Mexicans; Spanish/Mexican pack saddles
differed from U.S. military pack saddles; churro sheep do not look like merinos.
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Because of a paucity of diaries and original documents, researchers have to
skillfully use methods such as oral history, family records, traditions, skills, and
genealogical research. Information written in Spanish and spoken Tribal languages
should get ample attention.
Primary focus will be on the period of significance (1829-1848) and the trading of
dry goods for equines. Concurrent emigration and tribal stories will fill in the story of the
times. Well-documented U.S. military and Mormon expeditions after 1848 provide much
information, some of which is irrelevant to the horse-mule travel of the traders.
Clearly, no one story or viewpoint contains all the truth. The richness of OST
interpretation comes from the diverse cultures and their stories, best told by their
representatives. The taint of cultural bias colors many of the written records, as
witnessed by the citations in a recent article on the “Myth of Indolence” (Gonzáles,
2007).
Beware of Lingering Cultural Resentments
In practical terms, great skill and patience will have to be exercised by interpreters
and educators to get the collaboration of some individuals. Ancient cultural resentments
can run deep and long. In the American “melting pot,” some of the ice remains.
For example, several Hispanos nurse grudges against modern Pueblo people
because of the 1680 Pueblo Revolt which drove Spanish colonists out of New Mexico for
12 years. Some Pueblo people remain bitter about Spanish treatment of their people
since the 1540s, which served as justification of that revolt. California “Mission Indians”
still struggle with memories from the 1700-1800s, periods in which their cultures nearly
vanished as they conformed to European ways.
The entry of the USA into the north of the Mexican Republic in 1846-1850
produced a few blessings but much resentment from native peoples. Even the name of the
OST gets their attention. They observe that the “Spanish”-Mexican traders followed
ancient trading routes of the Pueblos, Apaches, Utes, Navajos, Paiutes, Chemehuevis, and
Mojaves. The question of trust arises from a legacy of broken treaties, bigotry, open
warfare, confinement, and suppression of traditional practices.
While many newcomers easily dismiss or “forgive” the negative behaviors as old
history, there are those who cling to the bad memories as something of a cultural or
family responsibility. They can quickly take offense at actions that somehow relate to
past offenses.
Can we interpret without offense? Probably not, but we must do it with a
positive, diplomatic attitude. We invite the various peoples to tell the appropriate stories
of their cultures, in their own words. We urge them to focus on the OSNHT while
referring to past and present traditions, ways of living, and how the trading impacted
them positively and negatively. We urge them to offer special experiences to modern
trail travelers, so as to help build bridges of recognition and respect among American
citizens. Several tribal parks and museums already welcome visitors in ways that benefit
the tribes and individuals while enriching the experience of the visitors.
Interpret both Natural and Cultural History
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OSTA’s collaborators—several Native American Tribes, the NPS, BLM, Forest
Service and Fish & Wildlife Service–manage millions of acres touched by the trail.
These agencies have cultural traditions or legal commitments to conserve and interpret
the cultural and natural resources. This will keep much of the trail intact for history
buffs. It can also attract those whose primary focus is on nature. Historical interpretation
that includes the landscape will help all visitors to better perceive the varied environment
of the OSNHT. It will enable visitors to see the places through the eyes of people who
have lived and traveled the trail for centuries. It will make the landscape more than
ephemeral scenery passed briefly on horseback or auto. It shows the “scenery” as
something enduring, as centuries-old geology, forests, deserts and rivers, worthy of pause
to study and understand.
The Old Spanish National Historic Trail’s many natural features could greatly
enrich visitor experiences. However, Conoboy (1993) has noted the lack of interpretive
material … available for the casual day hiker who may wonder about the natural and
cultural features found along most sections of the [historic and scenic] trail[s].
Hikers, campers, birders, anglers, hunters, mountain bikers, and geographers can
enjoy segments of the trail in the broad perspective—mixing nature with history. This
need not conflict with the Trail’s historic significance. Rather, it helps visitors to perceive
the trail as the traders saw it, noting its barriers, its water, its animals and plants that
supplied them with food, medicines, and shelter.
OSTA and its partners can expand our clientele and enrich our trail story by
highlighting the ecological significance of trails. Werner (2006) also hoped that we can
forge new partnerships across interests that normally focus only on one side of the
'natural' and 'cultural' resources divide.
Other advantages recognized by long-distance trail experts include:
1. Trail corridors can serve as travel, feeding, and propagation routes for animals and
can connect plant communities across what are otherwise biological deserts…or
monocultures (Werner, 2006). In fact, ancient wildlife herds first traveled many of the
mountain and desert trail routes of the Old Spanish Trail.
2. We can integrate the preservation of cultural and natural history, providing greater
authenticity of the historical experience.
3. …Ecological restoration projects could expand the community of people interested in
protecting National Historic Trails (Jarvis, 2006). Trail Association work on natural
heritage can provide direction for research and interpretation work by collaborating
scientists and students in ecology and resource management.
This inclusion of natural sciences broadens our focus from the trail ruts or exact
routes to visualizing the whole landscape and ecosystem through which the traders
passed. It helps the public sense how people choose travel routes, how closely our
present-day travel ways parallel those of the walkers and riders of yore. Families anxious
about driving through “barren spaces” can learn how travelers of the 1800s lived off the
plants, animals, and water in the landscape. They can imagine the suffering when those
elements were widely spaced. Geologists, ecologists, botanists, hydrologists,
ornithologists and other zoologists can contribute to the richness of the trail stories and
experiences offered to travelers, young and old.
Owen and Elkinton (2006) made the very important point that perhaps visitors will
find it engaging to observe and learn of the natural world that many generations of other
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people experienced as they traveled the now historic trails. This familiarity with the land
may help in conserving the landscapes and ecological systems through which the national
historic trail passes.
Use Interpretive Practices
As interpretation projects develop, consistent use of interpretive principles and
practices is vital to consistency in style and content (Knudson, Cable, and Beck, 2003).
Several that apply to long distance trails are:
 Use themes to describe the key messages (see below).
 Develop local interpretation to elaborate these themes.
 Make the visitor experience relevant and engaging.
 Develop a consistent sense of place.
 Encourage a sense of stewardship.
 Use writing styles that encourage people to read.
 Use artistic expression to help interpret.
 Create enjoyable activities that involve people in heritage and nature.
Use Themes as the Key Messages of the Trail
An interpretive theme should have several characteristics.
1. State it as a short, simple, complete sentence with only one idea.
2. Reveal the overall purpose of the trail, of a sign, of an exhibit, of a brochure, of a
program.
3. Make it specific.
4. Make it interesting and motivational or provocative.
Topics do not constitute themes, neither “Ancient rock art” nor “Pack mules.”
Examples of themes include: “Ancient peoples inscribed the OSNHT’s early history in
stone” and “How much wool can a mule carry to California?”
The Comprehensive Management Plan will outline the major themes. Each location
along the trail will have corollary subthemes that elaborate the main themes.
Summary
Theories of learning, cognitive development, and meaning-making serve as bases of
effective interpretation. Principles and practices of delivering interpretation so the visitors
accept and enjoy it provide another base.
This requires making interpretation a visitor involvement activity. We interpret to
provoke interest, enrich experiences, develop intimacy with the past, and encourage
enthusiasm for the future. On a historical trail, interpretation starts and ends with
developing a sense of place and a sense of culture.
Because long distance trails pose interesting problems for the delivery of
interpretation, OSTA is developing a strategy of numerous dispersed contact stations and
“experience nodes” with mostly non-personal interpretive devices. Mass media
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interpretation will serve other citizens. Partners, tribal groups, and communities can
interpret their stories in their words and actions, inviting tourists to participate in learning
of their stories and experiences with the Old Spanish Trail. The organization expects to
coordinate its 6-state efforts through a review and revision process consistent with wellaccepted principles and practices common to the federal administrators and OSTA’s
interpretation committee.
Literature Cited
Batten, B. 2005. Shared history? Presenting Australia’s Post-contact Indigenous
Past. Journal of Interpretation Research 10(1):31-48.
Burroughs, J. 1916. Under the Apple Tree. New York, NY: William H. Wise & Co.
Cable, T.T., D.M. Knudson, E. Udd, and D.J. Stewart. 1987. Attitude Changes as a
Result of Exposure to Interpretive Messages. Journal of Park and Recreation
Administration 5(1):47-60.
California Dept. of Parks and Recreation. 2001. The Seventh Generation: The Strategic
Vision of California State Parks. Sacramento, CA: State Resources Agency.
Conoboy, J.T. 1993. The Interpretation of Long Skinny Things; National Historic and
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Fishbein, M. 1980. A Theory of Reasoned Action. In: H.E. Howe and M.M. Page (eds),
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Hill, Steve and Ted T. Cable. 2006. The Concept of Authenticity: Implications for
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Hilton, S. 2000. Multiculturalism and Interpretation: Different Ways of Knowing. In:
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Mills, E.A. 1920. The Adventures of a Nature Guide. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page.
Owen, D. and S. Elkinton. 2006. The Ecological Significance of National Trails.
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Werner, G. 2006. Editor’s Column. Pathways Across America 19(1):2.
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