The Nature of Social and Cultural Continuity and Change
By Keith Smith, The Emanuel School
The washing of an atomic bomb in the Soviet Union. (www.mipt.vcu.edu/mipt2.html)
The purpose of this revision booklet is to prepare you for Section One of the HSC on
the Nature of Social and Cultural Continuity and Change. This booklet focuses on:Explore continuity and change through examination of the following questions:
• is all change necessarily progress?
• which groups benefit from change? Which do not?
• are westernisation, modernisation and industrialisation inevitable?
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Is all change necessarily progress?
Progress is perception based and your answers must reflect this. Progress is a sense
of progression, a belief or perception that things are getting better based on socially
and culturally literate principles.
Progress in Society and Culture can mean a movement in society and culture towards:1. Equal opportunities and status for both genders
2. Open and democratic decision making bodies and processes in the micro and
macro world
3. Equal distribution of and access to technology
4. Tolerance and acceptance based on social and cultural relativism
5. A narrowing of economic inequalities.
I will now examine if all change is progress by considering the micro and macro world
through the prism of power/authority, gender and technology
The S.R.C.
MICRO WORLD (School, peers and family)
Let us look at my micro world, family and peers. When I lived in Newcastle, England the
majority of my friends were male. This reflected my narrow attitudes towards women,
typical of young Newcastle men. However, when I left Newcastle I met lots of intelligent
and confident women. This challenged my perception of gender roles. This change
clearly brought progress based on social and cultural literate principles. This created a
dynamic interaction when I went back home. My sisters were influenced by my female
friends and my experiences. They began to assert their individuality and challenge their
gender roles. Clearly this is progress. Or is it?
The dynamics in my family were altered permanently. This created conflict between my
dad and my younger sister. It also challenged my parents’ relationship. My mother began
to assert her independence. This created enormous strain on their relationship as my
father felt disempowered. He had lost his authority in areas of finance and even control of
technology (he was forced by my mother to teach her how to operate the VCR and the
Hi-Fi!) For my father this was not progress. The women were clear winners. However,
the costs for my father were real and painful. His traditional views were obliterated.
Change brought progress but at a considerable cost.
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Three generations of continuity and change. After 20 years of
tumultuous change to the family dynamics the feeling among the
Smith’s is that the benefits finally outweigh the costs.
Gender. Gender roles have changed significantly in the family in recent time. Fathers
help out more at home and mothers are often the main breadwinners. The increasing
equality has brought progress. However, there have also been drawbacks. Fathers now
experience insoluble problems of balancing home and work. Mothers are expected to
contribute financially as well as be the primary carer. Not all change brings progress.
1. What are the gender roles in your family?
2. Have these roles changed in your life time?
3. Who are the winners and loser?
Power and Authority. The developments of S.R.C.s are symbolic of a shift in power in
schools. Children’s rights and the right to be heard are now accepted within schools.
Teacher’s power has been moderated and they no longer have the authority to use abusive
methods of discipline (e.g. verbal abuse and corporal punishment). However some say
the shift in power has gone too far. Teachers are often unable to teach in more troubled
schools. Some say children’s rights have been developed at the expense of a teacher’s
right to discipline e.g. in some schools teachers are forbidden from breaking up fights in
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case they are subject to allegations by students. Changes have improved school situations
for students but teaching bodies are quick to claim this has not brought wholesale
progress.
1. Should the student teacher relationship be more democratic?
2. How could this be achieved?
3. Who would benefit from these changes? Who would not?
Technology Mobile phones, the Internet, worldwide communication networks have
brought great progress. Businesses can function more efficiently even from the comfort
of your own home. Relatives who live abroad are easily contacted through Skype and
MSN. They also benefit from cheap flights. However, the globalised world is not without
its problems. Parents are increasingly dragged away on business in other countries.
Family get-togethers can be ruined by intrusive mobile phone calls. Intimate relations are
replaced by online dating often with people in other continents. The mother of a student I
once taught was dating a guy in America! To her the relationship was made real by the
internet. To her daughter it was an illusion facilitated by technology. Her mother’s
loneliness and alienation was being exploited by Lavalife Internet dating. Has technology
brought progress?
1. How has technology impacted on dating?
2. Which groups have benefited from these changes?
MACRO WORLD (Workplace, religion, government, the law and the media)
In the examination you may be asked to draw on your selected country or your
macro world.
The recent events in Iraq emphasise the difficulties in answering this question. The US’s
intervention in to Iraq is clearly a change. But who are the winners and losers? What are
the costs and benefits? Has it brought progress?
The US government suggest progress has been made. Infrastructure is slowly being
rebuilt and the economy is slowly recovering. Democracy has been introduced. Clearly
this can be perceived as progress. However, for many people the country has regressed.
Democracy under foreign rule is an imposition and an affront to many Iraqis. There has
been an enormous cost for the removal of Saddam. The US government has spent billions
and directed funds away from important programs at home. The war is increasingly
unpopular and Bush’s authority has been undermined by his involvement. However, the
costs have brought some benefits. Is a limited democracy better than the dictatorship and
repression of Saddam’s regime?
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Clearly it is important to balance your answers by considering the costs / benefits
and winners / losers in determining if change brings progress. Now let us deal with
power and authority, gender and technology in the macro world.
Gender. The breaking down of the glass ceiling has freed women to even become Prime
Ministers. Women are now in 10% of all executive positions in Australia. Women are
accepted as rabbis within certain Jewish traditions (Rabbi Ninnio in Sydney) However,
these women often still face much conflict. By succeeding in their macro world they may
experience difficulties in their personal lives e.g. little time for children and marriage
break up. Also equal opportunities in the macro world do not guarantee similar
experiences in the micro world. This cultural lag as Marx would call it creates enormous
difficulties for women. In Japan women are now arguably bound by a need to succeed at
work but also by traditional binds such as “filial piety.” Is all change progress?
Power and Authority. The breakdown of traditional power and authority figures has
created a number of freedoms. Homosexuality has begun to be accepted and it is no
coincidence that this has happened as traditional organised religions have declined in
power and authority. The decline and influence of priests and the separation of Church
and State have brought multiculturalism as a government policy and as a way of life.
However this does not guarantee harmony. The old traditions arguably maintained order
and held families together. Secularisation of marriage has arguably increased divorce.
Majority world countries that have modernised quickly and adopted democratic systems
have experienced many problems. Without a strong tradition of democracy places like
Iran and Iraq have stumbled from crisis to crisis. The flawed democratic process has
allowed theocracies and dictatorships to take hold. Also the raised expectations of people
(e.g. Eastern Europe after the fall of the Berlin Wall) and their disappointment have
allowed Far Right organisations to grow in power and authority. Note the alarming
growth neo-Nazi groups in Russia, even in Israel. Has democracy brought progress for
all?
Technology Our globalised world and an increasing global identity are facilitated by new
communication and travel technology. Internet groups support minority causes and help
promote them to global prominence (eg the Yanomami Indian in the Amazon). New
technology allows us to be more informed and participate more fully in the decisionmaking processes. The Coalition and Labor are now battling it out on youtube. Literally
their every word is analysed by the media and relayed back to us. Yet this new
technology is open to misuse. The Chinese struck a deal with google. Google are now
allowed to operate in China but at a huge cost. All anti-government references have been
removed. Fairfax and the Murdoch press are able to control the flow of information using
the latest technology and influence the decision-making processes such as elections. Is
this progress?
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Questions.
1. Identify how globalisation has impacted on your selected country in the
following areas:a. Gender
b. Power / authority
c. Technology
2. Has globalisation brought progress?
Which groups benefit from change? Which do not?
The author in his early college days. I am the one sporting the bleached blonde hair. I feel
my friends and I have benefited from our change in hair styles.
Again our focus in this question must relate to the key concepts in both the micro
and macro world.
Micro Changes in school creates costs and benefits. Let us again consider the role of the
SRC. As discussed earlier, many schools incorporate the SRC in to a number of its
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decision making processes. The Principal at our school meets regularly to consider
suggestions for change. This shift in power and authority under the current Principal
brings costs and benefits to differing groups. Students on the SRC feel more empowered.
Recent changes in our school included mufti days and improved out door furniture that
benefit the students. However, not all students felt they had benefited. Where as
previously students discussed openly suggestions for change they are now directed to the
SRC. The SRC involves class votes. People who are unsuccessful in these elections may
feel disillusioned. Other students may lack the confidence to raise suggestions in the class
room. Is the SRC agenda set by the student body or the individual causes of the SRC
members? Some groups have benefited from change other have not?
1. What changes have your SRC introduced in to school?
2. Who benefited from these changes? Who did not benefit from these changes?
3. Did these changes bring progress based on socially and culturally literate
principles?
Macro Changes in the law in Australia bring cost and benefits to differing groups in
Australia. The recent APEC amendments to the law benefited the organisers and
participants in the APEC meeting. The police believed the changes benefited
Sydneysiders by making them safe from terrorist attack. The new powers of arrest
allowed the police to effectively deal with disturbances to protect us all. The safety fence
in Sydney allowed Australia to host a major world event increasing its status globally.
However, others perceive this change very differently. According to the “Stop Bush
Coalition” the changes benefited the police and the government. Citizens lost many of
their civil liberties due to the increased powers of the state. A number of people appeared
to be man handled by the police, including a female reporter. Australia’s international
reputation as a safe house for APEC was more important than the rights of its citizens.
Some groups appeared to benefit others did not.
Do you feel Australia benefits from the increasing emphasis on security?
Gender Wherever there is change there is always winners and losers. Japan’s 1947 Civil
Code Act gave women freedom to pursue careers to meet the needs of a modern
industrialised nation. However the loss of influence for their fathers and the breaking
down of “filial piety” (family ties and hierarchies) challenged family units. Similarly
increased opportunities for women can mean decreased opportunities for men (and vice
versa). The old certainties of traditional values and continuities such as patriarchy in
Islam, Christianity and Judaism gave some people comfort and stability. Change brings
uncertainty and conflict. Many women have gained much. But what of poor women in
the majority world gained? Or even in the poorer suburbs of Sydney? Eastern Suburbs
educated women may embrace change but what of their Western sisters. Recent
government initiatives to get single women back in the workforce may reduce centrelink
dependency. However, is it creating a whole new generation of home alone kids?
1. Do you feel single mothers should work 15 hours per week as soon as their
children begin kindergarten? (This is the new government directive)
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2. Who benefits? Who loses? What do you think?
Technology Those with access to technology are benefiting greatly from change.
International business and employment opportunities, multi-channeled, multi-cultural
broadcasts are now norms. Food mixers, computerised air conditioners the list goes on.
But what of those made redundant by new technology. Robotics has replaced many semiskilled factory workers. Small businesses find it increasingly difficult to compete with
global corporate bodies. Older people feel more and more alienated by the new digital
age. Nuclear power brings cheaper electricity but pollutes the air and sea of those who
live close by. Military technology threatens us all in the hands of elected and non-elected
zealots.
1. What impact has technology had on peoples’ quality of life?
2. Who are the winners? Losers? Costs? Benefits?
Power/Authority The individual’s right to choose is a modern panacea. The decline of
the traditional hierarchies such as religion and rigid class systems has brought relief for
many. Gay marriages, women rabbis and priests are perceived by many as winners. Many
have gained from the democratisation of civil society. However, macro reform by interim
governments do not guarantee that Muslim women in rural Iraq will not be stoned. Nor
that government legislation for gender equality will ensure that women are promoted on
merit at work in Japan. The traditional structures have not simply melted away.
Similarly new power and authority structures have emerged. The global multinationals
now act openly against the wishes of host countries and relocate without hesitation
running counter to government policy. People live in increasingly democratic societies
yet our boss at work (and the company) has the power and authority to dismiss us as soon
as the companies’ performance begins to stutter. Is society becoming more or less
democratic?
1. Should workers be allowed to hold Union meetings during work hours?
Should governments have the authority to restrict or authorise union activity
in the workplace?
2. Should work places be democratic?
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Are westernisation, modernisation and industrialisation inevitable?
This is a challenging question and relates to globalisation. It would be difficult to argue
against the inevitably of westernisation, modernisation and industrialisation. To answer
the question it is vital that you know your definitions and break them down in to their
component parts.
Industrialisation
Refers to the transition in methods of production that has been
responsible for the vastly increased wealth creating capacity of
modern societies compared with traditional systems. It may refer to
manufacturing, agriculture and administration. Is it inevitable
that the Majority World, poorer nations of the world will change
from traditional economies (e.g. small farms, bartering and small
markets) to mass production and hi-tech industries?
The best students will focus on all three aspects of manufacturing,
agriculture and administration. For example industrialisation is
difficult in some countries due to their environment. Afghanistan’s
geography makes central administration almost impossible.
Traditional power structures remain in place that localise power
and authority. Warlords restrict democracy as well as the
development of agriculture and manufacturing. The mountains
of Afghanistan make agricultural improvement difficult. There are
few electrical power sources away from the cities. This is
preventing the introduction of technological developments that can
transform agricultural production. Manufacturing relies on
investment. This is difficult in a war torn country. However, even
under Taliban control industrialisation took place in the urban
areas and cities such as Kabul.
1. How has industrialisation impacted on your selected country?
2. Has it brought progress?
Modernisation
A process of social change resulting from the diffusion and
adoption of the characteristics of expansive and apparently more
advanced societies through societies that are apparently less
advanced. It involves social mobilisation, the growth of a more
effective and centralised apparatus of social and political
control, the acceptance of scientifically rational norms and the
transformation of social relations and aesthetic forms.
Modernisation appears on the surface to be inevitable. However, its
character can certainly be shaped by the individual society and
cultures experiencing change.
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Social mobilisation. In many countries it is still relatively rare that
the child of the very poor can rise to be head of state. However,
Nelson Mandella’s rise to political power demonstrates social
mobilisation. Yet in Japan, frequently politicians come from
families that have influenced public life for generations. The recent
female Foreign Minister was the daughter of a previous Prime
Minister. Has Japan truly modernised?
Centralised apparatus of social and political control. Many
countries of the world appear to have centralised administrations.
However, Colombia’s drug barons both control and operate outside
of this apparatus. Indeed the North East of Colombia is outside of
the control of the elected government. In Japan power is
centralised but in the rural areas globalisation and its individualism
has barely dented the traditional power of the family. Many
indigenous peoples from around the world resist and exist outside
modernisation.
Scientific rational norms. Many people around the world
continue to reject science. In Africa medicine is still traditional in
many areas. In the West homoepathy and acupuncture grow in
popularity and re-affirm traditional practices.
Transformation of social relations and aesthetic forms. In a
recent Ross Gittins article in the SMH he commented on the vast
increases in wealth amongst the middle to upper band of poor
countries globally. However, the bottom band comprising one
billion people are slipping behind. There has been no
transformation in many parts of sub Saharan Africa. Aesthetic
forms remain traditional in nature. Incredibly these older aesthetic
forms are growing in popularity. Indigenous artists in Australia are
now in great demand.
1. How has modernisation impacted on your selected country?
2. How has your country’s modernisation differed from other neighbouring
countries? Why do you think this is?
Westernisation
A particular form of modernisation in which the methods and
values of Western industrial capitalism are the basis of the changes
that are occurring.
Methods. Japan has rapidly Westernised since the US occupation.
It is a world leader in hi-tech industries in terms of innovation and
quality. Fujitsu big screen TV’s are the benchmark for the industry.
However, Japan retains much of its traditional values in the work
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place. Shinto shrines exist to promote harmony in the workforce.
But globalisation and foreign influences even shake Japan. Sony
has recently appointed a non-Japanese managing director. We
await the outcome of these new developments.
Values. Japan appears to resist much of Westernisation.
Okinawans continue to live traditional lives well in to their 100s.
Traditional values of harmony and community ensure long and
happy lives. However, the young are rejecting these values.
McDonald’s has replaced fish and vegetables as the staple for
young Okinawans. Yet individualism (epitomised through cutesie
fashion and Western rock and roll parodies) define Japanese
culture as acculturated but distinct from the West.
What do you think? Can nations resist these global forces of westernisation,
modernisation and industrialisation? Can a nation sustain itself in the wake of
transnational corporations dominating the world economy? Take for example Iraq. Where
there are natural resources or military strategic considerations or even a new potential
market of consumers you will find the growing influence of Coca-Cola and Fox
Networks. Globalisation seems an irresistible force. Even the most remote and primitive
tribe is increasingly meeting the snap of cameras and the greenback of documentary film
makers, tourists and venture capitalists. When I visited the so called lost pueblito in
Colombia as a young man I was shocked to see how indigenous people lived. However, I
was more shocked to see they had little food but drank and sold coca cola in the middle
of the Sierra Nevada rainforests.
However, perhaps these forces of change are not inevitable. Parliamentary democracy is
not the only system of macro level decision-making. Marxists, Anarchists, communalists,
hippies and Buddhist monks are examples of societies that seek to resist or at least redefine globalisation. Industrialisation as an ideology is threatened by climate change.
Westernisation is challenged by Islam and Orthodox Judaism. Peoples around the world
are rejecting popular culture, consumerism and consumption. Modernisation and the
centralisation of power are resisted by anti-globalisation protestors.
Westernisation, modernisation and industrialisation may appear to be inevitable but their
character is far from certain. The emergence of Asian economies suggests that
globalisation will accelerate the acculturation between East and West. Who can say what
its nature will be in 10, 20 or 50 years from now.
Class discussion.
1. Do society and cultures really experience progress?
2. Is progress simply a word to disguise the process of globalisation,
westernisation and the spread of capitalism?
3. What do you think will be the outcome of the growth of China and India on
modernisation and westernisation? Will we be Easternised?
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Now attempt the following past paper to test your knowledge and understanding of
this section of the syllabus. On completion read the examiners report to enable you
to evaluate your own answers before submitting to your teacher.
Question 3 (6 marks) 2003
(a) Define modernisation.
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(b) Discuss the statement: ‘Modernisation is inevitable.’
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Notes from the Marking Centre
Better responses in part (a) clearly stated that modernisation was a process of social
change through the diffusion and adoption of characteristics of expansive and apparently
more technologically advanced societies. Weaker responses did not recognise
modernisation as a process of social change.
Better responses in part (b) drew on a range of arguments for and against the inevitability
of modernisation, with the application of linking concepts, such as secularisation,
industrialisation, westernisation, democratisation, bureaucratisation, urbanisation or
globalisation. Typically these were also applied to examples from a selected country.
Weaker responses tended to confuse links between modernisation and concepts like
industrialisation or westernisation. Such responses also tended to revolve around
simplified arguments that .modernisation is about technology, and that all such changes
are good.
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Question 3 (6 marks) 2005
Identify ONE social change and explain how some groups in a society have benefited
from this change while other groups have not.
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Notes from the Marking Centre
Many candidates described a social change and its impact on different groups in society.
This was an acceptable response so long as candidates successfully dealt with a valid
social change in a selected society. Many candidates described a social change and its
impact on different groups in society. This was an acceptable response so long as
candidates successfully dealt with a valid social change in a selected society. Weaker
responses selected less valid examples. Better responses referred to a valid social change
such as modernisation or westernisation or globalisation to analyse the negative and
positive impact of this social change on different groups in a society selected, for
example doi moi in Vietnam. The better responses were able to succinctly explain the
complexity of the social change and its impact, both positive and negative, on different
groups in society. Some responses focused too heavily on their social change theory
without adequately considering the positive and negative impact of an identified change
on various groups in a selected society. It was important to effectively address all aspects
of the question and focus on ONE social change as well as account for how some groups
have benefited while others have not from such change. Candidates are advised to refrain
from giving a prepared response without ensuring that they are adequately addressing all
parts of the question.
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Question 3 (6 marks) 2006
Define industrialisation, and assess whether it has brought about progress in
society. Consider both positive and negative impacts.
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Notes from the Marking Centre
This question proved to be quite challenging for some candidates who did not provide a
concise and accurate definition of industrialisation and demonstrated a poor
understanding of the social impacts of industrialisation. Better responses were able to
clearly define the concept as a process of change from an agrarian to an industrial society
and the resulting impacts on a range of aspects of society. These responses did not limit
themselves to economic and environmental impacts but demonstrated a sound knowledge
of all the aspects of a society that could be affected by industrialisation. These responses
were able to make clear judgements on the impacts of industrialisation by assessing
whether the resulting changes in a variety of aspects of society had brought about
progress or not. Better responses addressed both positive and negative impacts and
judiciously used focus country studies in making an assessment. Weaker responses
confined the definition of industrialisation to the present increase in technology or
focused too heavily on one impact. The assessment of progress was based on one or a
limited number of factors, or simply stated positive and negative aspects of
industrialisation without attempting to assess whether it had brought about progress in
society.
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Remember:1. Answer the question…no prepared responses.
2. Support your answer with lots of specific examples
3. Refer to the concepts power/authority, gender and technology. Also consider
globalisation and acculturation.
4. If you are asked to answer “are westernisation, modernisation and
industrialisation inevitable” ensure that you break down the key concept in
to its component parts as I have shown you.
This is me in Bondi last summer. I arranged a meeting with an ex student of mine
who is now approaching 30! When I first taught her in 1992 she was a reluctant
learner. She is now working in the film industry. What progress! At least my hair
has changed for the better. Or has it?
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