TECA 1354
Berk Chapter 11 b Outline pg. Foundations of Morality
Study Guide
Berk Chapter 10 pg.380 – 390
See: YouTube Video: A brief description of Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development
URL: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CYrfV-F3x_8
Foundations of Morality
1. List two points on which most theories of moral development are in agreement. (p. 380)
A.
B.
2. Match each of the following major theories of moral development with the aspect of moral functioning that it emphasizes: (p. 380)
____ Emotional side of conscience
____ Ability to reason about justice and fairness
____ Moral behavior theory
1. Psychoanalytic theory
2. Social learning theory
3. Cognitive-developmental
The Psychoanalytic Perspective
1. Briefly summarize Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of morality development. (p. 380)
2. True or False: Most researchers agree with Freud’s assertion that fear of punishment and loss of parental love motivates children to behave morally. (p. 380)
3. A special type of discipline called ________________________ supports conscience development by pointing out the effects of the child’s misbehavior on others. Cite three ways in which it does so. (pp.
380–381)
A.
B.
C.
4. What type of parenting interferes with the development of empathy and prosocial responding? (p. 381)
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TECA 1354
Berk Chapter 11 b Outline pg. Foundations of Morality
5. Discuss ways children’s characteristics affect the success of parenting techniques. (p. 381)
6. Recent research shows that Freud was (correct / incorrect) in his assertion that guilt is an important motivator of moral action. Explain your answer. (pp. 381–382)
V.FOUNDATIONS OF MORALITY (pp. 380–391)
A. By age 2, children evaluate their own and others’ actions in words (“I naughty” or “Connie not nice”) and react with distress to aggressive or potentially harmful behaviors.
B. In all cultures, adults respond to children’s developing capacity to distinguish right from wrong and to accommodate the needs of others.
C. All theories of moral development recognize that conscience begins to take shape in early childhood.
1. At first, the child’s morality is externally controlled by adults.
2. Gradually it becomes regulated by inner standards.
3. Truly moral individuals have developed compassionate concerns and principles of good conduct, which they follow in many situations.
D. Each major theory of development emphasizes a different aspect of morality.
1. Psychoanalytic theory stresses the emotional side of conscience development, especially the role of identification and guilt.
2. Social learning theory focuses on how moral behavior is learned through reinforcement and modeling.
3. The cognitive-developmental perspective emphasizes thinking —children’s ability to reason about justice and fairness.
E. The Psychoanalytic Perspective (pp. 380–381)
1. According to Freud, moral development is largely complete by age 5 to 6 years, when children form a superego, or conscience, by identifying with the same-sex parent, whose moral standards they adopt.
2. Children obey the superego to avoid guilt, a painful emotion.
3. Today, most researchers disagree with Freud’s account of conscience development; specifically, his belief that fear of punishment and loss of parental love motivate moral behavior. a. Children whose parents frequently use threats or physical force tend to feel little guilt and to violate standards often. b. When parents withdraw love, children often respond with self-blame and may eventually deny the emotion to protect themselves from overwhelming guilt.
4. The Power of Inductive Discipline (pp. 380–381) a. Conscience formation is promoted by a type of discipline called induction, in which an adult helps make the child aware of feelings by pointing out the effects on others of the child’s misbehavior. b. Induction is effective with children as young as age 2. Children whose parents use this approach are more likely to refrain from wrongdoing, confess, repair damage they have done, and display prosocial behavior.
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Berk Chapter 11 b Outline pg. Foundations of Morality c. Induction motivates children’s active commitment to moral standards.
(1) Induction gives children information about how to behave for use in future situations.
(2) Induction encourages empathy and sympathetic concern by emphasizing the impact of the child’s behavior on others.
(3) Induction gives children reasons to change their behavior by showing how moral standards make sense.
(4) Children who experience induction may form a script that deters future transgressions. d. Discipline that relies too heavily on threats of punishment or love withdrawal makes children anxious and frightened and does not get children to internalize moral rules. It also interferes with empathy and prosocial responding.
5. The Child’s Contribution (p. 381) a. In addition to good discipline, the child’s temperament also affects the success of parenting techniques. b. Temperament is also influential: Parents can promote conscience development by using discipline techniques that are appropriate for the temperament of the child. c. In general, parents should tailor disciplinary strategies to their child’s personality.
6. The Role of Guilt (pp. 381–382) a. Freud was correct that guilt is an important motivator of moral action; guilt reactions are evident in children by the end of toddlerhood. b. Parents can influence children by inducing empathy-based guilt, explaining that the child has caused someone distress. c. Parents should also help children deal with guilt feelings constructively by guiding them to make amends for repairing damage caused by misdeeds, and engaging in future prosocial behavior. d. Contrary to Freud’s belief, guilt is not the only force that compels us to act morally. Nor is moral development complete by the end of early childhood; it is a gradual process, beginning in the preschool years and extending into adulthood
Social Learning Theory
1. Explain why operant conditioning is insufficient for children to acquire moral responses. (p. 382)
2. Social learning theorists believe that children learn to behave morally largely through
____________________________—observing and imitating adults who demonstrate appropriate behavior.
(p. 382)
3. List three characteristics of models that affect children’s willingness to imitate them. (p. 382)
A.
B.
C.
4. True or False: Punishment promotes immediate compliance but does not produce long-lasting changes in children’s behavior. (p. 382)
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TECA 1354
Berk Chapter 11 b Outline pg. Foundations of Morality
5. List four undesirable side effects of harsh punishment. (p. 383)
A.
B.
C.
D.
6. Describe two alternatives to harsh punishment. (pp. 383–384)
A.
B.
7. Describe three ways that parents can increase the effectiveness of punishment when they do decide to use it.
(pp. 384–385)
A.
B.
C.
8. Explain positive discipline, noting how it reduces the need for punishment. (p. 385)
9. Provide three examples of positive discipline. (p. 385)
A.
B.
C.
F. Social Learning Theory (pp. 382–385)
1. According to social learning theory, moral behavior does not have a unique course of development but, rather, is acquired through reinforcement and modeling, like any other set of responses.
2. Importance of Modeling (p. 382) a. Operant conditioning —reinforcement for good behavior—is not sufficient for a child to acquire moral behavior, because for a behavior to be reinforced, it must first occur spontaneously.
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Berk Chapter 11 b Outline pg. Foundations of Morality b. Social learning theorists believe that children learn to behave morally largely through modeling —by observing and imitating people who demonstrate appropriate behavior. c. Preschoolers are more likely to copy the prosocial actions of an adult who displays certain characteristics:
(1) Warmth and responsiveness
(2) Competence and power
(3) Consistency between assertions and behavior d. By the end of the preschool years, children who have had consistent exposure to caring adults internalize prosocial rules and tend to behave prosocially whether or not a model is present.
3. Effects of Punishment (pp. 382–383) a. Yelling, slapping, spanking, and other forms of harsh punishment are ineffective disciplinary tactics, although a sharp reprimand or physical force to restrain or move a child from one place to another is justified when immediate obedience is necessary— for example, when a child is in physical danger. b. To foster long-term goals, parents tend to rely on warmth and reasoning, while they often combine power assertion with reasoning in response to serious transgressions. c. Research indicates that punishment promotes only immediate compliance, not lasting changes in behavior. d. Physical punishment in childhood is associated with serious, lasting mental health problems throughout childhood and adolescence, and even into adulthood. e. Harsh punishment has several undesirable side effects:
(1) It provides children with adult models of aggression.
(2) It prompts children to react with anger, resentment, and a focus on their own distress, rather than awareness of others’ needs.
(3) It teaches children to avoid the punishing adult.
(4) It gives adults immediate relief, reinforcing their use of coercive discipline.
(5) Adults whose own parents engaged in corporal punishment are more accepting of such discipline, so use of physical punishment may transfer to the next generation. f. Parents with mental health problems are more likely to be punitive and to have hardto-manage children, suggesting a hereditary connection.
(1) Research indicates that good parenting can protect children who are genetically at risk from developing aggression and antisocial behaviors.
(2) Other research indicates that parental harshness predicts problems in children of diverse temperaments, making the widespread use of corporal punishment in
North America cause for concern. g. The widespread assumption that corporal punishment is harmless when implemented by caring parents is valid only when used in a limited way in certain social contexts.
4. Alternatives to Harsh Punishment (pp. 382–385) a. Time out involves removing children from the immediate setting until they are ready to act appropriately. b. Withdrawal of privileges allows parents to avoid harsh discipline techniques. c. When punishment is used, it is most effective when characterized by the following:
(1) Parents use punishment consistently.
(2) A warm parent–child relationship exists.
(3) Parents provide an explanation for the punishment.
5. Positive Discipline (p. 385) a. The most effective forms of discipline encourage good conduct by letting the child know ahead of time how to act, then praising good behavior. b. When preschoolers and parents engage in joint activities characterized by sensitivity, cooperation, and shared positive emotion, children show more favorable conscience development. c. Parents who use positive discipline focus on long-term social and life skills and, as a result, greatly reduce the need for punishment.
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TECA 1354
Berk Chapter 11 b Outline pg. Foundations of Morality
Cultural Influences: Ethnic Differences in the Consequences of Physical Punishment
1. Use of physical punishment is highest among (low-SES minority parents / middle-SES white parents).
(p. 384)
2. Although corporal punishment is linked with a wide variety of negative child outcomes, exceptions do exist. Describe these exceptions. (p. 384)
3. Discuss differences in African-American and Caucasian-American parental attitudes toward physical punishment. (p. 384)
African-American: ________________________________________________________________________
Caucasian-American: ______________________________________________________________________
The Cognitive-Developmental Perspective
1. In what major way does the cognitive-developmental perspective of morality differ from the psychoanalytic and social learning approaches? (pp. 385–386)
2. Preschoolers are able to distinguish _______________ imperatives, which protect people’s rights and welfare, from two other forms of action: _______________ conventions, or customs determined solely by consensus, such as table manners and dress style, and matters of
____________________________, which do not violate rights or harm others, are not socially regulated, and therefore are up to the individual. (p. 386)
3. Explain how young children learn to make distinctions between moral and social-conventional transgressions.
(p. 386)
4. List three features of parent communication that help children reason about morality. (p. 386)
A.
B.
C.
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TECA 1354
Berk Chapter 11 b Outline pg. Foundations of Morality
G. The Cognitive-Developmental Perspective (pp. 385–386)
1. The cognitive-developmental perspective on morality regards children as active thinkers about social rules who begin making moral judgments as early as the preschool years.
2. Preschoolers’ Moral Understanding (p. 386) a. Preschoolers say that a person with bad intentions deserves punishment more than a well-intentioned person. b. At age 4, children can distinguish truthfulness and lying, and they disapprove of lying even when it is undetected. c. Preschoolers in diverse cultures distinguish moral imperatives, which protect people’s rights and welfare, from two other types of action: social conventions
(customs such as table manners that are determined solely by consensus) and matters of personal choice , such as choice of friends and color of clothing, which do not violate rights and are up to the individual.
(1) Preschoolers consider moral violations as more wrong than violations of social conventions.
(2) Their concern with personal choice leads them to moral concepts of individual social conventions, which they do by actively making sense of their experiences.
3. Social Experience and Moral Understanding (p. 386) a. Social experiences are vital to preschoolers’ moral understanding. b. Disputes with siblings and peers allow preschoolers to work out their first ideas about justice and fairness. c. Children also learn from the way parents and other adults handle rule violations and discuss moral issues. d. Preschoolers who are disliked by peers because they verbally and physically assault others show delays in moral reasoning and need special help to avoid long-term disruptions in moral development. rights. d. Young children tend to make moral judgments based on salient features and consequences while neglecting other important information.
(1) They are more likely than older children to view stealing and lying as always wrong, regardless of the reason.
(2) They view inflicting physical damage as more serious than treating others unfairly. e. Preschoolers do show an impressive ability to distinguish moral imperatives from
The Other Side of Morality: Development of Aggression
1. By the end of the preschool years, two general types of aggression emerge. The most common is
___________________ aggression , aimed at obtaining an object, privilege, or space with no deliberate intent to harm. The other type is ____________________ aggression , which is intended to hurt another person.
(pp. 386–387)
2. Match the following types of hostile aggression with the appropriate descriptions. (p. 387)
_____ Physical aggression name-
_____ Verbal aggression
_____ Relational aggression manipulation destroying other’s
A. Harms others through threats of physical aggression, calling, or hostile teasing
B. Social exclusion, malicious gossip, or friendship
C. Pushing, hitting, kicking, or punching others; property
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Berk Chapter 11 b Outline pg. Foundations of Morality
3. In early childhood, (physical / verbal) aggression gradually replaces (physical / verbal) aggression.
What accounts for this change? (p. 387)
4. Discuss sex differences in aggression throughout the preschool years. (pp. 387–388)
5. Explain how a hostile family atmosphere promotes and sustains high rates of childhood aggression. (p.
388)
6. True or False: Girls are more likely than boys to be targets of harsh physical discipline and parental inconsistency. (p. 387)
7. Cite three negative outcomes for highly aggressive children. (pp. 387–388)
A.
B.
C.
8. True or False: Violent content in children’s programming occurs at above average rates, and cartoons are the most violent. (p. 388)
9. Explain why young children are especially likely to be influenced by television. (pp. 388–389)
10. Briefly summarize the long-term effects of TV violence on children’s behavior. (p. 389)
11. True or False: Media violence hardens children to aggression, making them more willing to tolerate it in others. Briefly explain your response. (p. 389)
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TECA 1354
Berk Chapter 11 b Outline pg. Foundations of Morality
12. What is the V-Chip, and why is it an incomplete solution for regulating children’s TV? (pp. 389–390)
13. List three strategies parents can use to regulate children’s TV viewing and computer use. (p. 390)
A.
B.
C.
14. List several ways to help parents and children break the cycle of hostilities between family members.
(pp. 390–391)
Parents:
A.
B.
Children:
A.
B.
H. The Other Side of Morality: Development of Aggression (pp. 386–391)
1. Two general types of aggression emerge during the early preschool years. a. Instrumental aggression is aimed at obtaining an object, privilege, or space, with no deliberate intent to harm another person; it declines with age. b. In contrast, hostile aggression is intended to hurt another individual. It comes in at least three varieties.
(1) Physical aggression harms others through physical injury or destruction of their property.
(2) Verbal aggression harms others through threats of physical aggression, namecalling, or hostile teasing.
(3) Relational aggression damages another’s peer relationships through social exclusion, malicious gossip, or friendship manipulation. c. Verbal aggression is always direct, while physical and relational aggression can be either direct (hitting) or indirect (destroying property).
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Berk Chapter 11 b Outline pg. Foundations of Morality d. In early childhood, as language develops, verbal aggression gradually replaces physical aggression. e. Instrumental aggression declines as preschoolers develop the capacity to delay gratification. f. Hostile aggression rises over early and middle childhood, as children become better able to recognize hostile intentions.
2. Boys in many cultures are more physically aggressive than girls. a. Male sex hormones (androgens) contribute to boys’ higher rate of physical activity, which may increase their opportunities for aggressive encounters. b. As 2-year-olds become aware of gender stereotypes, physical aggression drops off in girls but is maintained in boys.
3. Girls are more likely than boys to use indirect relational tactics that disrupt intimate bonds and, unlike physical attacks, tend to be prolonged.
4. Although some aggression is normal in preschoolers, children who are emotionally negative, impulsive, and disobedient are at risk for lasting difficulties.
5. Childhood relational aggression predicts later internalizing and externalizing difficulties, including loneliness, anxiety, depression, and antisocial activity, but these outcomes depend on child-rearing conditions.
6. The Family as Training Ground for Aggressive Behavior (p. 388) a. Parenting behaviors that undermine moral internalization are also linked to physical and relational aggression in diverse cultures. b. Parental anger and punitiveness create a conflict-ridden family atmosphere and an
“out-of-control” child. c. After negative parent–child exchanges, both parent and child get relief from stopping the other’s unpleasant behaviors, so the behaviors escalate. d. Boys are more likely than girls to be targets of harsh, inconsistent discipline because they are more active and impulsive and therefore harder to control. e. Children who are products of these family processes soon view the world from a violent perspective, seeing hostile intent where it does not exist and, as a result, making unprovoked attacks. f. Highly aggressive children tend to be rejected by peers, to fail in school, and (by adolescence) to seek out deviant peer groups.
7. Violent Media and Aggression (pp. 388–390) a. TV violence is more common than average in children’s programming, especially cartoons. b. Although Canadian broadcasters follow a code that restricts TV violence, Canadians typically watch American channels. c. Because young children fail to understand a great deal of what they see on TV, they are especially likely to be influenced by television. d. Young children also find it hard to separate true-to-life from fantasized television content. e. TV violence increases the likelihood of hostile thoughts and feelings and of aggressive behavior; playing violent video and computer games has similar effects. f. Violent programming creates both short-term and long-term difficulties in parent and peer relations. g. The ease with which TV and computer games can manipulate children’s beliefs and behavior has led to strong public pressure to improve media content—for example, through the V-chip, which allows parents to block undesired material. h. The Internet poses additional risks that children will be exposed to media violence and other inappropriate content; filtering programs exist to allow parents to control children’s Internet access.
8. Helping Children and Parents Control Aggression (pp. 390–391) a. Treatment for aggressive children must begin early, before the behavior is well practiced and becomes difficult to change.
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Berk Chapter 11 b Outline pg. Foundations of Morality b. Breaking the cycle of hostilities between family members is crucial. c. Parents must be taught to combine command with reasons and to replace verbal insults and spankings with more effective techniques such as time out and withdrawal of privileges. d. Such training leads to declines in children’s aggression and leads parents to have a more positive view of their children. e. Social problem-solving training teaches children how to resolve social conflicts through discussing and trying out successful strategies. f. Relieving stressors stemming from poverty and neighborhood disorganization also helps prevent childhood aggression.
Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development
Stage
Basic
Conflict
Important
Events
Outcome
Infancy (birth to 18 months)
Early
Childhood (2 to 3 years)
Preschool (3 to 5 years)
School Age (6 to 11 years)
Adolescence
(12 to 18 years)
Yound
Adulthood
Trust vs.
Mistrust
Autonomy vs.
Shame and
Doubt
Initiative vs.
Guilt
Industry vs.
Inferiority
Identity vs.
Role
Confusion
Intimacy vs.
Isolation
Feeding
Toilet
Training
Exploration
School
Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliabilty, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.
Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Success leads to feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.
Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.
Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.
Social
Relationships
Teens needs to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.
Relationships
Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people.
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Berk Chapter 11 b Outline pg. Foundations of Morality
(19 to 40 years)
Middle
Adulthood
(40 to 65 years)
Maturity(65 to death)
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Work and
Parenthood
Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.
Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Reflection on
Life
Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.
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