AP Language
More on Writing the Rhetorical Analysis
Adapted from Edward Wevodau, Colleyville Heritage High School
http://www.myteacherpages.com/webpages/EWevodau/writing4.cfm?subpage=1115012
Simply put, a rhetorical analysis is a written explanation about HOW a writer (or speaker) attempts to change the mind of his or her
audience. An effective rhetorical analysis demonstrates a full understanding of the interplay of the rhetorical triangle.
Purpose: First, one must clearly understand what the author/speaker wants.
Audience: Next, one must understand the targeted audience. A group of high school students would be a markedly different audience
than, say, a a group of college professors.
Strategy: Considering the audience--and knowing the purpose--what would be the most effective strategies?
For the AP rhetorical analysis, students are presented with a complete argument from a published author. That author has a purpose or
objective. That author has targeted an audience. That author has chosen the strategies that he or she believes most effective.
Essentially, students write a paper that demonstrates their understanding of rhetorical process at hand.
Reading comprehension is crucial: Students must first recognize and understand the author's purpose. Then, students have to read
between the lines: What rhetorical strategies has the author chosen and why?
Students should NOT see themselves as part of the audience. They should stand apart as observers. They see the audience. They see
the author. What is the author doing in order to affect the minds of the audience?
CONSIDERING THE AUDIENCE
Examine the prompt and passage for clues about the audience. What do we know about them? Is it a general audience or a specific
audience? What does the audience already know or think about the topic at hand? What don't they know? What is the historical
setting? (Might it have any relevance?) Are there any significant events that the audience has recently experienced? What seems to be
the audience's attitude or mindset before the speech or essay begins?
Read the prompt carefully for clues about the audience. Any and all background information given is designed to help you.
Effective persuaders KNOW their audience. They know weaknesses, predilections, concerns, etc.... A salesman visiting your house
will first carefully note all the things that you have placed in the room while he makes small talk. He is assessing you. Getting to know
you. Finding out what's important to you. You have to know the beast before you can tame it.
Before writing your essay, take time to consider the audience. Those who do will likely score higher.
WRITING ABOUT THE AUDIENCE
Go back to the rhetorical triangle: It's all about the audience. The writer wants something: He wants his or her audience to think or feel
differently about something. Each analytical paragraph should address the audience. HOW does the writer want the audience to think
or feel? WHY does he tell them the things he does? WHY might the audience's minds be changed?
End each body paragraph with an explanation on the probable effect on the audience, being sure to emphasize WHY and HOW the
writer's choices might bring about this effect.
The more words shared about the rhetorical effect on the audience, the higher the essay score.
IDENTIFYING & EXPLAINING RHETORICAL STRATEGIES
Poor papers are easy to spot: Five paragraphs. Introduction with thesis. Three body paragraphs, each about one rhetorical strategy.
And a conclusion that summarizes.
Here's the formula for a low-scoring paper:
The writer wants his audience to think he's right. To do this, he uses diction, selection of detail, and figurative language.
The writer uses diction when....
The writer uses selection of detail when....
The writer uses figurative language to....
In conclusion, by using diction, selection of detail, and figurative language, the writer convinces the audience to think he's right.
The writer may address relevant strategies, but the response as a whole suggests minimal understanding. It's too simplistic in its
reasoning.
It is important to understand that most strategies work together in combination. For example, in an essay, the strategies of diction and
selection of detail generally combine to establish the speaker's persuasive attitude. For AP students, it would be redundant to present
this information in separate paragraphs (one on diction, the other on selection of detail).
Often, it is best to base paragraphs on the rhetorical intent as opposed to the rhetorical strategy. For example, a writer intends to
ridicule his subject. In order to accomplish this goal, he uses the strategies of diction, selection of detail, and figurative language (e.g.,
similes). Write about these three strategies in ONE paragraph detailing how they work together to ridicule the subject and bring
readers to the author's point of view.
A good rule of thumb is to make a brief list at the bottom of the page under the heading, "WHAT THE WRITER WANTS...."
List out what the writer wants. These then become your paragraphs. Identify and explain all strategies the writer uses (within that
single paragraph) to accomplish that goal.
IDENTIFYING "RHETORICAL STRATEGIES"
A rhetorical strategy is anything that a writer does that has the potential to change the thoughts or feelings of his audience. Consider
the following:
 Figurative language (e.g., metaphors, similes): These creative comparisons can be used to help the audience better visualize
the author's ideas. Consider that the rhetorical triangle itself is a visual metaphor for the rhetorical process.
 Analogies (or comparisons in general)
 Emotional Appeals (how does the writer target the audience's emotions?)
 Logical Appeals (how does the writer target the audience's intelligence?)
 Attempts to establish the writer's credibility (how does the writer get the audience to
trust or believe in what he or she says?)
 Use of repetition: If they repeat it often enough, people tend to believe it. Also,
repetition aids memory recall.
 Diction: Emotionally-charged words can be extremely effective. Also, a writer
might use a pattern of words to establish a theme or message.
 Standout sentences (that is, sentences designed to grab your attention)
 Tone (consider how effective sarcasm can be)
 Cause-effect argumentation (if this happens, then....)
 Addressing the opposition (I don't need to argue my position if I can show that the opposition's views are absurd)
 Use of historical precedents (this falls under analogies but is worth noting separately)
 Contrast (sometimes a writer best shows his position by contrasting it to another, weaker view)
 Selection of Detail (remember, the person making the argument chooses what you see and don't see)
THE CONSTANCY OF SELECTION OF DETAIL
Writers make choices. All word and details in the passage were chosen by its author. There are reasons behind every choice. You don't
need fancy terms for your analysis: Simply explain WHY the author presented the information that he did.
You always have something to write about, since the author chooses to include every word, fact, and detail.
Diction + Detail = Tone
You always have this formula to write about. With what feeling or emotion does the writer express himself? One's tone (or attitude)
can be highly persuasive. A writer can use fear, anger, sympathy, or love to move his or her audience. If you have nothing else to say,
write a paragraph about how the author conveys his or her attitude about the topic at hand.
Sequencing of Ideas: Follow the Developing Argument
A writer does not randomly present ideas. The sequencing of information is important. Consider the Leonid Fridman prompt (a
selection from "America Needs Its Nerds") from several years ago.
Fridman began by establishing that America has an anti-intellectual culture. He then proposed that other countries--many of our rivals-have a pro-intellectual culture. He then ended on a note of concern that we may fall behind our economic rivals, which surely would
trigger the end of American Supremacy.
The point would be that Fridman's essay had three distinct sections, each of which led to the other.
In writing a rhetorical analysis of Fridman's essay, a student should follow Fridman's structure. ("First Fridman establishes ________
by _________; Then, he __________.") Each stage of Fridman's argument becomes one paragraph.
This is quite different from structuring your essay around three rhetorical choices, such as metaphors, analogies, and selective diction.
But, when you yourself write an argument, do you build the argument through rhetorical tools or do you build the argument through
ideas? Of course its the latter! It's not your metaphor that wins me over, it's the ideas conveyed through the metaphor.
So, don't have paragraphs about metaphors, analogies, etc. Have paragraphs that present a stage in the author's argument and then
illustrate how rhetorical choices (such as metaphors, analogies, etc.) convey the author's intent.
Ending the Rhetorical Analysis?
Conclusions: End with the Final Appeal
Simply end by analyzing the writer's final rhetorical appeal. Generally, the ending is the final persuasive thrust, when the entire
argument comes together.
Analyze how the argument comes to a conclusion. What does the writer leave his/her audience hanging with?
There's nothing more that needs to be said.
Do NOT say something like, "In conclusion, the writer's many rhetorical strategies convince his audience that....."
No! That's a dead, pointless sentence. End with your analysis of the writer's final rhetorical appeal.
EXAMINING ANCHOR PAPERS
Now we should examine sample paragraphs from papers scoring 8s or 9s on AP English Language rhetorical analysis compositions.
Look for patterns in the following essays.
First, note that every single paragraph will have at least one CONCRETE illustration. When identifying the author’s choices, always,
always, always illustrate with direct quotes.
Next, note that the writers nearly always talk about the audience. The author has made his choices for a reason. He has “intent.” The
ultimate goal, of course, is to change the minds of his readers. So, observe how these writers explain WHY the author made these
choices and HOW they might affect the reading audience. The more time spent here, the hire the scores.
Lastly, note that the writers tend not to force technical words. They simply identify something the author did and explain why he did it
(and, of course, how it helps make his point). Most of the time, these writers simply talk about the author’s diction (or word choice)
and selection of detail.
This simple analytical paragraph
identifies the writer’s intent and
then shows HOW (via diction) the
writer conveys this understanding.
Note that the writer does not say,
“The author uses diction….”
Simply identify the writer’s
choices and explain WHY he
made those choices—or HOW
they contribute to his point.
Note the simple structure of
this paragraph:
Identification of a rhetorical
strategy. Presentation of
Evidence. Explanation of
significance. The writer
integrates an impressive
amount of concrete evidence
to support his analysis,
clearly showing the author
Wilson’s intent.
Extremely well done. Note
how the writer seemingly
integrates more than a few
quotes from the original
source. Alos, consider that
the writer doesn’t use any
“fancy” literary language.
He simply points out what
the author does and WHY
he does it. Please see the
value of the small words
written at the end. Here the
writer talks about the effect
on the audience (“shocks the
readers”). Don’t just say
what the author does: Say
WHY he does it. What
response does he want from
his audience? The more you
talk about the audience, the
better.
In the larger paper, most of this
writer’s ideas are elaborated
further. The writer was asked how
the author characterizes scientists.
Note that, in the last line, the writer
talks about the effect on the
audience. Also, note language in
which the writer explains WHY
certain devices were used (e.g.,
“This analogy is used relate…”).
The official graders praised this
writer’s daring to be humorous
(e.g., Wile E. Coyote). Also, the
writer was able to identify
advanced techniques, such as
antithesis.
Good paragraph. The writer
quotes two lines, both of which
evidence emotional appeals. The
effect on the audience (fear) is
clearly indicated. The
recognition of the paradox adds
depth to the response.
Remember to talk about the
audience! (“He scares the
audience….”) It is a pattern that
we’ve seen so far in papers
scoring 8+.
This referenced passage
caused all sorts of trouble
the year it was given.
Basically, there were 800
words, of which 650 were
in one long sentence. But
this writer understood
WHY the author wrote a
single sentence that listed
the problems caused by
money. After reading
these two paragraphs, we
understand the author’s
unusual choice.
Remember, the keys to a
rhetorical analysis: (1.)
Identify a choice made by
the author to convey his
ideas. (2.) Explain WHY
this choice was made. (3.)
Indicate HOW the reader
is expected to respond.
The writer above does all
three (“is enough to
convince almost anyone
of….”).
Simply note what the
writer is doing. She
presents a strategy (first
tone, then rhetorical
questions), followed by
evidence and
explanation. She also
performs the magic
trick: Talking about the
reader (“Besides
entertaining the
reader….”).
I hope by now that you see the pattern of success. Look for the same pattern in the following samples taken from other essays that
have scored 8 or 9.