ASPECTS OF YUKUBEN NOUN PHRASE
BY
SEMONIWON BUNMI DAMILOLA
07/15CB096
A LONG ESSAY SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF
LINGUISTICS AND NIGERIAN LANGUAGES, FACULTY OF ARTS,
UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN, ILORIN, KWARA STATE,
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS (HONS)
IN LINGUISTICS
JUNE, 2011.
CERTIFICATION
This essay has been read and approved as meeting the
requirement of the Department of Linguistics and Nigerian
Languages, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.
_________________
___________
Mr. S.A AJE
Date
Project supervisor
_____________________
___________
PROF A.S ABDULSALAM
Date
Head of Department
______________
___________
External Examiner
Date
ii
DEDICATION
This research work is dedicated to the (Trinity), God the
Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, the reason for my existence
and achievement.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project is dedicated to the Almighty God, who has seen
me through all my days in the University.
My sincere gratitude goes to my project supervisor, Mr. Aje,
for his assistance and supervision during the course of this project.
May God in his infinite mercy bless him and his family.
I also appreciate the efforts of my Language Helper, Mr.
Kuru Adamu Ihaku-Imgbe, who helped me with the collection of
the information needed for this research work. May God bless him
and his family.
I appreciate my typist, Mr. Kayode Ajayi, who helped me
with the typing of my work. May God bless him and his family.
Words are inadequate to express my gratitude to my family:
my father, Mr. A.S Semoniwon, and my late mother, Mrs. M.V
Semoniwon and my siblings, Mr. Kolawole Semoniwon, Mr
Ayodele Semoniwon, Miss Gbemisola Semoniwon, Miss Jumoke
iv
Semoniwon and all other members of my family for their moral,
financial and spiritual support.
I appreciate my friends who contributed to make this project
a success: Mr. Aina Adewale, Miss Rafiu Abosede, Mr. Osainor
Bright, Mr. Akangbe Samuel, Mr Adeyinka Iskilu. I say a big thank
you to you all.
v
LIST OF SYMBOLS
Np
–
Noun phrase
N
–
Noun
Vp
–
Verb phrase
V
–
Verb
ADJP –
Adjectival phrase
PP
–
Prepositional phrase
GB
–
Government and binding
X
–
X-Bar
Spec -
Specifier
Xp
–
Maximal projection
Cp
–
Complementizer phrase
Ip
–
Inflectional phrase
INFL –
Inflection
vi
NI
–
N-Bar
VI
–
V-Bar
II
–
I-Bar
P
–
Preposition
Det
–
Determiner
TNS –
Agr
–
Tense
Agreement
S.V.O –
Subject, verb, object
Pres –
Present
Foc –
Focus marker
Q.M –
Question marker
Nom –
Nominative
Acc –
Accusative
Obli –
Oblique
REL –
Relative marker
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS
PAGES
Title page
i
Certification
ii
Dedication
iii
Acknowledgement
iv-v
List of symbols
vi-vii
Table of contents
viii-xiv
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0
General background
1
1.1
Historical background of Yukuben language
1-2
1.2
Geographical location of Yukuben language
3
1.3
Socio cultural profile of Yukuben language
4
viii
1.3.1 Culture of the Yukuben people
4-7
1.3.2 Socio linguistics profile of Yukuben people
7-12
1.3.3 Occupation of the Yukuben people
12-13
1.3.4 Religion of the Yukuben people
13-14
1.4
Genetic classification of Yukuben language
14-15
1.5
Scope and organization of study
15-16
1.6
Theoretical framework
16
1.7
A brief review of the theoretical framework
17-23
1.8
Data collection
23-24
1.9
Data analysis
24
CHAPTER TWO
BASIC PHONOLOGICAL AND SYNTACTIC CONCEPT
2.0
Introduction
25
2.1
Consonant sounds in Yukuben Language
25-38
ix
2.2
Vowel sounds in Yukuben Language
39-45
2.3
Tone system in Yukuben Language
45-47
2.4
Syllable structure in Yukuben Language
47-51
2.5
Phrase structure rules
51-53
2.5.1 Noun phrase in Yukuben Language
53-54
2.5.2 Verb phrase in Yukuben Language
54-55
2.5.3 Prepositional phrase in Yukuben Language
55-57
2.5.4 Adjective phrase in Yukuben Language
57-58
2.6
58-59
Lexical categories in Yukuben Language
2.6.1 Nouns in Yukuben
59-60
2.6.1.1 Types of nouns in Yukuben Language
60-65
2.6.2 Pronouns in Yukuben Language
66
2.6.2.1 Types of pronouns in Yukuben Language
66-69
2.6.3 Verbs in Yukuben Language
69
x
2.6.3.1 Transitive verb in Yukuben Language
70
2.6.3.2 Intransitive verb in Yukuben Language
70-71
2.6.4 Adjectives in Yukuben Language
71-72
2.6.5 Adverbs in Yukuben Language
72-73
2.6.6 Prepositions in Yukuben Language
73
2.6.7 Conjunctions in Yukuben Language
74
2. 7 Basic word order in Yukuben Language
74-77
2.8
77-78
Sentence types
2.8.1 Simple sentence in Yukuben Language
78-79
2.8.2 Compound sentence in Yukuben Language
79-80
2.8.3 Complex sentence in Yukuben Language
80-81
CHAPTER THREE
THE YUKUBEN NOUN PHRASE
3.0
Introduction
82
xi
3.1
Yukuben Noun Phrase
82
3.2
The noun in Yukuben word order
83-84
3.3
The noun and noun satellites in Yukuben
85
3.3.1 The Noun Head in Yukuben
85
3.3.2 The Noun and its satellites in Yukuben
86
3.3.2.1 Modification of Np in Yukuben by Adjective
86-87
3.3.2.2 Modification of Np in Yukuben by determiners
87-89
3.3.2.3 Modification of Np in Yukuben by preposition
89-90
3.3
90
Functions of Noun phrase in Yukuben
3.3.1 Noun phrase as subject of the verb
90
3.3.2 Noun phrase as object of the verb
91-92
3.3.3 Noun phrase as prepositional complement
92-93
3.4
93
Noun phrase and case assignment in Yukuben
3.4.1 Nominative case
94
xii
3.4.2 Accusative case
94
3.5.3 Oblique case
94
3.6
Noun phrase and thematic role assignment
in Yukuben
95-96
3. 6.1 Theme
96
3.6.2 Agent
96-97
3.6.3 Experiencer
97
3.6.4 Benefactive
97
3.6.5 Instrument
97
3.6.6 Locative
98
3.6.7 Goal
98
3.6.8 Source
98
xiii
CHAPTER FOUR
TRANSFORMATIONAL PROCESSES IN YUKUBEN
4.0
Introduction
99
4.1
Focus construction in Yukuben
99-100
4.1.1 Subject Np focusing
100-101
4.1.2 Direct object Np focusing
101
4.1.3 Indirect object Np focusing
101-102
4.2
103-104
Relativization in Yukuben
4.2.1 Subject Np relativization
104-105
4.2.2 Object Np relativization
105-106
4.3
107
Question formation in Yukuben
4.3.1 Yes/No question
107
4.3.2 WH-question
108-109
4.4
109-110
Reflexivization in Yukuben
xiv
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.0
Introduction
111
5.1
Summary
111-113
5.2
Conclusion
113
5.3
Recommendation
114
References
CHAPTER ONE
1.0
GENERAL BACKGROUND
The main focus of this research work is a discussion of some
aspects of Yukuben Noun phrase. In this chapter, we shall look at
the historical background, socio cultural profile which include their
culture, socio-linguistics profile, occupation and religion. This
chapter will also give information on the geographical location and
genetic classification of the Yukuben people. It will also discuss
about the scope and organization of study, theoretical frame work
xv
for the analysis of our data, method of data collection and then
attempt a brief review of our chosen frame work, the Government
and Binding theory.
1.1
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF YUKUBEN LANGUAGE
The history of Yukuben is traced back to the time before
independence. We are told that the colonial masters enslaved
people.
The Yukuben people were said to migrate from Ìdèn in the
north neighboring Cameroon due to slave trade.
The name Yukuben means “the child of a witch”. It was said
that one of the slave refused to work and was beaten, suddenly
the bees started trooping out from no where and scare the slave
traders away. Because of this, they were known to be “the child
of a witch”.
British colonial master created a boundary that led to the
parting or division of Yukuben speakers to Taraba State and
Cameroon.
xvi
British and French shared the land through colonies and
thereby we have Yukuben in Nigeria, and Yukuben in Cameroon.
ADMINISTRATION
The Yukuben people are headed by king called the “Ùdèng
Uchun of Uhumkhigi land”. He is assisted by a group of chiefs
called “Bàgbàn”.
The administration of Yukuben Land is pictured into village
heads who report to distinct heads and they in turn report to king,
the “Ùdèng Uchun”.
1.2 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF YUKUBEN LANGUAGE
Yukuben language is located in Takum local government
area between Katsina Ala and Gamana rivers, about 20 villages in
Taraba State and also spoken in Cameroon.
Yukuben region in Nigeria is west and central Africa which is
located within Taraba State (Benue - Plateau).
xvii
In Cameroun, it’s region is North West Province, Menchum
division, west of Furu – Awa, near Nigeria border.
The Yukuben people are surrounded by various hills with
various names: Kichi ènì Sabo, Ìyà, Kchenésìty Òlúkò, Kàlákìr, Ìtò.
POPULATION
The specific population of the Yukuben people cannot be
determined, but according to the population census in (1992), the
population in Nigeria is 15,000 in all countries 15,950. In
Cameroon, their population was 950 (Breton 1986). Presently,
their population in Nigeria is 23,000, in all countries 25,000.
1.3 SOCIO CULTURAL PROFILE OF YUKUBEN LANGUAGE
The socio cultural profile of the Yukuben people focuses on
their culture, how they use language in society (Socio-linguistics),
occupation and their religion.
1.3.1 CULTURE OF THE YUKUBEN PEOPLE
xviii
The culture of the Yukuben people has to do with their way
of life, marriage, festival, food and drinks, dressing and houses. All
these will be discuss one after the other.
1.3.1.1 MARRIAGE
The major social institution among the people is marriage
institution. They start their marriage ceremony with the family
introduction. The husband’s family will provide palm oil in
Calabash and cock to their in laws. Bush meats are also
presented.
When everything has been approved by the in laws, a date
for the wedding ceremony is now fixed. On the wedding day, the
husband family have to make their favourite wine known as
Bùrùkùtù out of guinea corn and add honey to it. Both families and
well wishers drink, dance, merry and celebrate on the wedding
day.
13.1.2 FESTIVAL
xix
Unlike other ethnic groups celebrate their festivals, Yukuben
people also celebrate their own festivals.
The Yukuben People celebrates series of festivals, but the
most common festival among them is the masquerade festival
called “Oohgum” when it is singular and “Eegum” when it is plural
in their language.
This masquerade festival is used to appease their gods.
They believe that, this masquerade protects and bless them. This
masquerade festival is celebrated annually (every year). During
this period, all Yukuben speakers all over Nigeria come home to
celebrate this festival. Their local drinks called “Bùrùkùtù” is used
to celebrate this festival.
Another festival which is celebrated among the Yukuben
people is “Khichun” festival. This festival is celebrated annually
among the hunters and farmers.
Another festival which is celebrated among Yukuben people
is called Kukyib (festival) Kamang (Circumcision) which means
xx
circumcision festival. The age at which a child can be circumcised
among the people is from 10-15 years.
1.3.1.3 FOOD AND DRINKS
Their major food is maize, guinea-corn, cassava, plantain,
yam, rice transformed into “Tuwo” usually called “Buna” by the
people.
Their major drink is called “Beson” usually made from guinea
corn, also known as Bùrùkùtù.
1.3.1.4 DRESSING
They put on weaved cloth known as “Ukya” in Yukuben
language which is mainly put on by the women. “Ukya” is known
as Aso ofì by the Yorubas. Their men put on what is known as
“Ìsáng” in their language. This Ìsáng is made using back of the
tree beaten until it become soft and tender.
1.3.1.5
HOUSES
xxi
The major building structures of the Yukuben people is the
hay and the mud buildings, although there are some buildings
made from blocks and cements but are few in number.
1.3.2 SOCIOLINGUISTICS PROFILE OF YUKUBEN PEOPLE
Austin defines socio linguistics “as the study of language in
relation to society”. That is the study of language as it affect and is
affected by socio-relatives, how language affects the society and
how the society affects language.
Socio linguistics is also defined as the effects of any and all
aspect of society including cultural norms, expectations and
contexts on the way language is used.
The sociolinguistics profile of Yukuben comprises the status
of their language, what they use their language for (language use),
their alternate names e.t.c.
xxii
Yukuben language which is also locally known as uhumkhigi
is said to be the real name of the people and it is mostly (the
name) preferred in Cameroon. The name Yukuben is derived by
the people of Takum, Jukun people.
LANGUAGE USE
Yukuben language is used in various ways, it is used for
social
activities
like:
Education,
trade
communication,
entertainment (local), greetings. It is also used in Religion, (Both in
Traditional and Christianity). Some of the social activities are
enumerated below:
1. EDUCATION: They use English language as their language of
Education from Primary Level to Senior Secondary School
Level. They use English to teach their students both written and
orally.
They also use Yukuben language for education at the primary
level (Primary 1-6) and also at Junior Secondary School Level
xxiii
(JSS 1-3) Although, it is an oral language, they teach their
students orally.
2. TRADE: Yukuben language is used as trade language both in
Nigeria and Cameroon. In Nigeria, they use Jukun [Jbu], Kuteb
[Kub], or Hausa [hau]. In Cameroon, they also use Jukun
Takum [dyu] or Cameroon Pidgin [wes].
3. COMMUNICATION:
communication
Yukuben
among
the
language
people.
They
is
used
use
it
for
for
communication in the family (at home) and also among other
people (the Yukuben’s).
4. ENTERTAINMENT: Yukuben language is also used locally for
entertainment among the people. It may be during festival,
marriage, party (especially at primary school level) and so on.
5. GREETINGS:
Yukuben language is also used for greeting
among the people.
6. Religion: Yukuben language is used in traditional Religion and
in Christianity.
xxiv
i.
Traditional Religion: Yukuben language is a language of
incantation, to worship their gods, to pray or make request
from their gods, to praise their gods etc.
ii.
Christianity: Yukuben language is used in the church for
various purposes. It is used to praise God, used to conduct
their church service, used for announcement, used to pray
and so on.
STATUS OF THE LANGUAGE
Yukuben language is a language, it is not a dialect. It is not
a written language, but an oral language. The language is not a
bedroom language, that is, the speakers have the privilege of
speaking it anytime.
Yukuben speakers are said to be multilingual in nature,
apart from Yukuben, they also speak other languages like Jukun
and Hausa. Few people that are educated among them speak
English (in Nigeria). Yukuben speakers speak Yukuben among
themselves but when they come in contact with the Jukun’s, they
xxv
speak Jukun and also if they come in contact with the Hausa’s,
they speak Hausa to communicate.
Yukuben language is also said to have dialectal variants
known as “Líssà,” Shìbong” “Fété.
Yukuben alternate names both in Nigeria and Cameroon is
Ayìkiben, Balaabe, Balaaben, Borítsu, Gohum Nyìkobe, Nyìkuben,
Unhum, Ochum, Uuhum-Gigi, Uhumkhigi
GENERAL BEHAVIOUR
The Yukuben people strongly belief in respect for elders,
they are always treated with due courtesy from the young ones.
They are friendly and they also entertain visitors.
The Yukuben people do not have group identification (e.g
tribal mark) used to identify them from other people e.g Jukun and
Hausa, unlike the Kanuri people, ̣Ò
. Òndó and other ethnic
. yó,
group, which have group identification.
xxvi
There is inter marriage among the people, that is, they can
marry from any ethnic group.
There is no economic factor like good roads, pipe borne
water and electricity.
1.3.3 OCCUPATION
The major occupation among the Yukuben people is
Farming. Apart from the educated people among them who are
involve in commercial activities like Banking, teaching and so on.
The Yukuben people are mainly farmers. They produce cash crops
such as groundnuts and cotton. Crops such as maize, rice, millet,
sorghum, cassava, guinea-corn and yam are also produced.
For their secondary production (that is changing of raw
materials into finished goods) they produced soya beans, palm oil,
palm wine and honey. They export crops and sell to other parts of
Taraba State.
xxvii
The Yukuben people also involve in livestock production
activities like poultry production, rabbit breeding and pig farming.
Other occupations such as cloth weaving, carpentry, bricklaying,
mat-making, carving, and blacksmithing are also carried out
among the people.
1.3.4 RELIGION
Before the advent of European missionaries, Yukuben
people were idol worshippers. At the advent of the European
missionaries, a great number of them got converted.
Presently, the major religion among the people are
Christianity and Traditional. For the Christians among them, they
have different churches, for example E.C.W.A, Catholic, Deeper
life, C.R.C.N and so on are present in their locality.
What they worship traditionally is known as “Idola
masquerade”. Other idols of the people are “Oohgum” which they
belief it protects against witchcraft, “Khima” is said to be “the god
xxviii
of thunder” and it is used against thieves, and also “Bahmbre”
which is also used against witchcraft and thieves.
Yukuben people did not embrace Islam, there is no Muslim
among the people talk less of having a mosque.
1.4
GENETIC CLASSIFICATION OF YUKUBEN LANGUAGE
Genetic classification of language is based on the
assumption that languages are originated from a common
ancestor. The essence of the genetic classification of Yukuben
language is to trace the origin of the language and show its
relationship to other languages.
Yukuben language belongs to the Jukunoid Phylum. The
Jukunoid is a sub-family of the Benue-Congo which originated
from Niger-Congo phylum of the Niger-Kordofanian language
family.
Below is a language chart which shows the language
genetic classification.
xxix
Niger-Kordofanian
Niger Congo
West Atlantic
Plateau
Mande
Gur
Kordofanian
kwa
Benue-Congo
Jukunoid
Adamawa
Cross-river
Ubangian
Bantoid
Yukuben
Source: (Williamson 1982)
1.5
SCOPE AND ORGANIZATION OF STUDY
This research work will examine the Noun phrase of
Yukuben language. The research work is divided into five chapters
of relevant aspects of the theory of syntax.
xxx
The first chapter is the introductory aspect which includes
the
historical
background,
socio-cultural
profile,
genetic
classification, Geographical location, scope and organization of
study, Theoretical framework, data collection, data analysis and a
brief review of the chosen framework.
The second chapter will focus on sound inventory, the
basic syntactic concepts such as phrase structures rules, lexical
categories, basic word order and sentence types.
The third chapter will focus on the main aspect of the
study which is Noun phrase.
The fourth chapter will examine the transformational
processes attested in Yukuben language.
In the last chapter, we shall have a brief summary of the
whole research and draw conclusion and recommendation of the
findings.
1.6
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
xxxi
The theoretical framework that will be adopted in this work
is
the
Government
and
Binding
theory
(GB
syntax)
of
transformational grammar.
1.7 A BRIEF REVIEW OF THE CHOSEN FRAMEWORK
The theory is a modular deductive theory of Universal
Grammar (UG) which posits multiple levels of representation
related by the transformational rules (move-alpha). However, it is a
more advanced theory of Universal Grammar, Sanusi (1996:1921).
Sanusi (1996:21) explained that GB theory greatly
eliminates proliferation of transformational rules like passive, affixhopping, question formation, equivalent NP deletion rule, raising,
insertion and so on. GB theory is otherwise known as principles
and parameters theory. In GB theory, the grammar is a continuous
interaction between components and sub theories embodying
different principles and parameters.
xxxii
Since GB is a modular deductive theory of grammar, it has
some sub-theories within which transformation operates.
According to Horrocks (1987:29) stated that the core
grammar of a given language is derived from the interaction of
sub-theories of UG. These sub-theories are inter-related that each
of them can account for grammatically or ungrammaticality of any
sentence.
The sub-theories are listed below.

Case theory

X-bar theory

Government theory

Binding theory

Bounding theory

Theta theory

Control theory
xxxiii
All the sub-theories of GB operates in a modular form
because the theory itself is referred to as a modular deductive
theory of grammar.
The above sub-theories are represented below to show
the interrelationship among them.
X-bar theory
D-structure
Case theory Movement
the projection
Lexicon
principle
Bounding theory
Theta functions
S-structure
Phonetic
Logical
Phonetic form
Logical form
Figure 5.6:- A schema of chomsky’s GB grammar
The projection principle, which projects the characteristics of
lexical entries onto the syntax, connects D-structure to s-structure
xxxiv
and connects the lexicon to logical form (LF) by specifying the
possible contexts in which a particular lexical item can occur.
The X-bar theory will be adopted for comprehensive
analysis for the research work.
X-BAR THEORY
Chomsky (1986:3) is of the opinion that X-bar theory is one
or another of its variants, lexical entries can be limited to minimal
forms with indication of no more than inherent and selectional
features and phrase structure rules can apparently be dispensed
with entirely a highly desirable move for familiar reasons.
Cook (1988:94) explains that X-bar syntax replaces a large
number of ‘Idiosyncractic rule’ with general principles. It captures
properties of all phrases, not just those of a certain type and bases
xxxv
the syntax on lexical categories that links with entries in the
lexicon.
The X-bar theory brings out what is common in the structure
of phrase. The head of the system (X-bar) is the recognition that
syntactic categories (lexical categories) are projected from lexical
items which these lexical ends, that is Noun phrase, verb phrase,
Adjectival phrase and prepositional phrase.
The head of the projection is zero projection (X0). Heads are
terminal
nodes,
they
dominate
the
words.
X-bar
theory
distinguishes two levels of projection. Complement combines with
X to form XI projection (X1
X): YP. Adjunct combines with X to
form projection (X, XI: YP). The specified combines with the
topmost X to form the maximal projection XP (XP spec: XI).
XP
X1
Spec
X
xxxvi
YP
Adopted from Haegman (1994:105)
From the above diagram shown above, the linear order of
the constituent with respect to the head of the projection is not
universally fixed. However, as proposed in Chomsky (1986a)
every maximal projection (XP) has a specifier of XP position, the
intermediate XI projection serving as XP’s core where the core
consists of the head (X0) and the compliment which can be
maximal projection on its own.
XP
(Phrasal categories)
(Core which is recursive)
Spec
X0
Compliment
The D-structure in GB requires a description of the phrase
structure and this is achieved by the X-bar syntax, an elaboration
of earlier phrase structure syntax. This syntax also integrates the
lexicon with syntax being concerned, as it is, with the
xxxvii
characteristics of lexical categories e.g. Noun, verb, preposition
etc. and the properties of the lexical items of which it is composed.
The functional relationship between the parts of a sentence
is specified in GB through theta roles (similar to fill mores’
semantic cases). Thus in a sentence such as “The girl gave the
man a book”. There are three theta roles: “the girl” refers to the
initiator or agent of the action, “a book” refers to that thing that is
affected by the action, and “the man” refers to the entity receiving
the thing.
One principal function of government, in Chomsky’s theory,
is to ensure that a word is assigned the proper case.
The move alpha among the numerous transformational
rules under T.G is the only one retained in new GB theory while
others are considered differently.
1.8
DATA COLLECTION
The means of data collection in this research work is data
elicitation with the Ibadan 400 basic items and the use of frame
xxxviii
technique. The Ibadan 400 word list contains some lexical items in
English which are translated into Yukuben language.
The method of data collection was contact method or
informant method. The informant is multi-lingual; he speaks his
native language fluently (Yukuben), English, French, Hausa and
Jukun. The Ibadan 400 work list and some phrases and sentences
were used to elicit information from our informant and his
responses are tape recorded and translated and tone marked for
study.
Below are some information about my informant.
Name: Kuru Adamu Ihaku-Imgbe
Age: 50 years
Sex: Male
Occupation: Teaching
Religion: Christianity
Years spent in Yukuben: 30 years
1.9
DATA ANALYSIS
xxxix
In order to have accurate analysis for this research, Ibadan
four hundred word lists with an equivalent meaning in Yukuben
language was used.
Also, the frame technique used in this research is framing of
sentences in English and translated to Yukuben language with the
assistance of an informant. This enables the researcher to
determine the actual underlying form of a word, constituent and
possible syntactic classes to which each word belongs to in
Yukuben language.
CHAPTER TWO
BASIC PHONOLOGICAL AND SYNTACTIC CONCEPTS
2.0
INTRODUCTION
This chapter will examine the basic phonological concept.
That is, the sound inventory of Yukuben language. And also the
basic syntactic concepts of Yukuben language such as phrase
structure rules, lexical categories, basic word order and sentence
types
xl
2.1
Consonant sounds in Yukuben language
Yukuben has 24 Consonants. Yukuben Consonant sounds
are arranged in a chart below, following the international phonetic
association (IPA) chart.
The consonant chart consists of place of articulation which
is shown on the top of the chart, starting from the first place of
articulation (bilabial towards the back of the mouth glottis). The
manner of articulation is shown on the vertical axis of the chart.
The voiceless sounds are shown by the left while its voiced
of
counterpart (sounds) is shown by the right.
Plosive
p b
Nasal
m
t

Λ
Λ
k g Kp
gb
gw
d
ŋ
n
xli
velar
Glottal
Labialized
Labio velar
Velar
Palatal
alveolar
Palato
Alveolar
Labio dental
Bilabial
articulation
Manner
Place of articulation
Fricative
f v s
Affricate
ts
Central
r
Λ
z
h
Λ
t∫
Λ
d
j
w
approximant
Lateral
l
approximant
Yukuben Consonant Chart
Description of Yukuben Consonant Sounds.
Plosive / Stops
The following stop sounds are attested in Yukuben.
Bilabial stop [p
b]
[p] Voiceless bilabial stop
Yukuben
Phonetic
xlii
Gloss
Word initial
Word medial
Word final
púegí
[púegí]
‘Look for’
Pálatìm
[Pálatìm]
‘put on’
kìsàpú
[kìsápú]
‘door (way)’
Apá
[apá]
‘two’
ázip
[ázip]
‘nail’
Óríp
[óríp]
‘heart’
Yukuben
phonetic
Gloss
Búná
[búná]
‘food’
Búmá
[búmá]
‘salt’
àkpáábá
[àkpáábá]
‘shoe’
[b] Voiced bilabial stop
Word initial
Word medial
xliii
Kúbú
[Kúbú]
‘hand’
Yukuben
Phonetic
Gloss
tù
[tù]
‘climb’
tàkíhà
[tàkíhà]
‘story’
ótum
[ótum]
‘ashes’
Kétím
[kétím]
‘room’
Alveolar stop [t
d]
[t] Voiceless alveolar stop
Word initial
Word medial
[d] Voiced alveolar stop
Word initial
Word medial
Yukuben
phonetic
dùm
[dùm]
‘thorn’
dèíjá
[dèíd á]
‘dance’
úndú
[úndú]
‘mouth’
xliv
Gloss
Kìdà
Velar stop [k
[kìdà]
‘bag’
Yukuben
phonetic
Gloss
khíkí
[kíkí]
‘head’
kìvà
[kìvà]
‘calabash’
bẹ̣̀kẹ̣́rà
[b̣́k̣́rà]
‘pepper’
kèkríyàn
[kèkríjã̀ ]
‘donkey’
ólák
[ólák]
‘jaw’
abak
[abak]
‘hot’\
Yukuben
phonetic
Gloss
gujá
[gudΛ á]
‘play’
gùkídà
[gùkídà]
‘beat’ (drum)
bọ̀g
̣ ọ̀ ̣
[b‫̣̀כ‬g‫]̣̀כ‬
‘yam’
g]
[k] Voiceless velar stop
Word initial
Word medial
Word final
[g] Voiced velar stop
Word initial
Word medial
xlv
bòlógo
[bòlógo]
‘cassava’
phonetic
Gloss
Λ
Λ
labio velar stop [kp
gb]
Λ
[kp] voiceless labio velar stop
Yukuben
Word initial
kpà
Λ
[kpà]
Λ
‘vomit’
Word medial
Λ
bàkpà
Λ
[bàkpà]
‘maize’
Λ
ékpèmú
Λ
[ékpèmú]
‘finish’
phonetic
Gloss
Λ
‘drink’
Λ
‘forget’
Λ
[gb] voiced labio velar stop
Yukuben
Word initial
Word medial
gbá
Λ
[gbá]
gbì ézí
Λ
[gbi èzí]
Λ
[ágbadó]
Λ
ágbadó
Λ
xlvi
Λ
́
‘vulture’
bugbán
[bugbã]
‘strong’
Yukuben
phonetic
Gloss
igwú
[igwú]
‘fight’
àgọ̣̀ gwá
[àg‫ ̣̀כ‬gwá]
‘duck’
Labialized Velar [gW]
[gw] voiced labialized velar stop
Word medial
NASALS
The following nasal sounds are attested in Yukuben
language.
Bilabial nasal [m]
[m] Voiced bilabial nasal
Word initial
Yukuben
Phonetic
Gloss
mábúlá
[mábúlá]
‘sleep’
ṃ̀bésé
[ṃ̀bésé]
‘urinate’
xlvii
Word medial
Word final
kíma
[kíma]
‘red’
ìmbà
[ìmbà]
‘give birth’
brìm
[brìm]
‘follow’
ètúm ̣̀
[ètúṃ̀]
‘right‘ (side)
Alveolar nasal [n]
[n] Voiced alveolar nasal
Yukuben
Phonetic
Gloss
Word initial
ǹjalím
[ǹd alím]
‘defecate’
Word medial
banu
[banu]
‘bird’
Kùtùnú
[kùtùnú]
‘kneel’
Yukuben
phonetic
Gloss
Word medial
óngríp
[óŋríp]
‘thirst’
Word final
bémáŋ
[bémáŋ]
‘water’
Velar nasal [ŋ]
[ŋ] voiced velar nasal
xlviii
amọng
[am‫כ‬ŋ]
‘full’
Fricative
The following fricative sounds are attested in Yukuben.
Labio dental fricative [f
v]
[f] voiceless labio dental fricative
Yukuben
Phonetic
Gloss
Word initial
fe
[fe]
‘roast’
Word medial
úfé
[úfé]
‘wing’
Ìsi kpàn úfe
[ìsi kpã ̀ úfe]
‘plantain’
Yukuben
phonetic
Gloss
Word initial
vùm
[vùm]
‘open’ (door)
Word medial
kúvú
[kúvú]
‘dust’
Kívím
[kívím]
‘darkness’
[v] voiced labio dental fricative
xlix
Alveolar fricative [s
z]
[s] voiceless alveolar fricative
Word initial
Word medial
Yukuben
phonetic
Gloss
sù
[sù]
‘song’
sírím
[sírím
‘return’
ósím
[ósím]
‘horn’
isún
[isũ]́
‘like’
[z] voiced alveolar fricative
Word initial
Word medial
Yukuben
phonetic
Gloss
zón
[zõ]́
‘spin’ (thread)
zím
[zím]
‘sew’
ózo
[ózo]
‘farm’
l
úzì
[úzì]
‘belly’ (external)
Glottal fricative [h]
[h] Voiced glottal fricative
Word initial
Word medial
Yukuben
phonetic
Gloss
hóhó
[hoho]
‘river’
híhú úga
[híhú úga]
‘sea’
Tàkíhà
[tàkíhà]
‘story’
áhám
[áhám]
‘corpse’
Affricate
The following affricate sounds are attested in Yukuben
Λ
Alveolar affricate [ts]
Λ
[ts]
Voiceless alveolar affricate
Yukuben
Λ
phonetic
li
Λ
Gloss
Word medial
bètsí
[bètsí]
Λ
Λ
ẹntsi
[ntsi]
Λ
Palato alveolar affricate [t∫
‘market’
‘four’
dΛ ]
Λ
[t∫] voiceless palato alveolar affricate
Yukuben
phonetic
Gloss
Word initial
chón
[t∫õ]́
Λ
‘carry (load)’
Word medial
íchá
[ít∫á]
‘fish’
Kíchó
[kít∫ó]
Λ
‘stone’
Λ
[d ] Voiced palato alveolar affricate
Yukuben
phonetic
Word initial
jo
[d o]
‘pound’
Word medial
dèíjá
[dèídΛ á]
‘dance’
gujá
[gud á]
Λ
‘play’
Λ
lii
Gloss
Approximant
The following approximant sounds are attested in
Yukuben.
Central approximant [r, j, w]
[r] Voiced alveolar central approximant
Word medial
Yukuben
phonetic
Gloss
úrú
[úrú]
‘sun’
ikru
[ikru]
‘crocodile’
[j] Voiced palatal central approximant
Word medial
Yukuben
phonetic
Gloss
ìyà
[ìjà]
‘buffalo’
Ìyó
[ìjó]
‘friend’
[w] Voiced labio velar central approximant
liii
Word initial
Word medial
Yukuben
phonetic
Gloss
Λ
wun àtsù
Λ
[wun àtsù]
‘jump’
Λ
wun kuchi
[wun kut∫i]
‘fly’
Ìwú
[ìwú]
‘dog’
Lateral approximant
[L] Voiced alveolar lateral approximant
Word initial
Word medial
2.2
Yukuben
phonetic
Gloss
lá
élím
úlá
[lá]
[élím]
[úlá]
‘lick’
‘grass’
‘fire’
VOWEL SOUNDS IN YUKUBEN LANGUAGE
VOWELS
The vowels may be described along the parameters of:

The part of the tongue used

The height of the tongue to the roof of the mouth
liv

The roundness of the lips
Yukuben language consists of seven (7) oral vowels and five
(5) nasal vowel.
Below is a chart that shows the oral vowels in Yukuben
Front
High
Back
Central
u
i
Mid high e
o
‫כ‬
Mid low 
low
a
Yukuben oral vowel chart
Distribution of Oral Vowels in Yukuben Language
[I] high front unrounded vowel
Word initial
Yukuben
Phonetic
Gloss
írím
[írím]
‘back’
Λ
lv
Word medial
Word final
Íchá
[it∫a]
‘fish’
kìvá
[kìvá]
‘calabash’
kìdà
[kìdà]
‘bag’
étsi
[étsi]
‘tree’
ítì
[ítì]
‘sand‘
[e] Front non-low unrounded vowel
Word initial
Word medial
Yukuben
Phonetic
Gloss
ètébi
[ètébi]
‘rain’
ema
[ema]
‘husband’
bètsí
[bètsí]
‘market’
kétím
[kétím]
‘room’
Λ
Word final
Λ
itsare
[itsare]
‘earth’
Kule
[kule]
‘cat‘
[] Front non-low unrounded vowel
Word medial
Yukuben
Phonetic
Gloss
bẹ̣̀kẹ́ṛ à
[b̣̀k̣́rà]
‘pepper’
lvi
́
bẹ̣́rán
[b̣́rã]
‘fear’
Yukuben
Phonetic
Gloss
ázip
[ázip]
‘nail’
àkírí
[akiri]
‘guinea fowl’
banu
[banu]
‘bird’
Kàtú
[Kàtú]
‘abuse’
kígé ovà
[kígé ovà]
‘rainy season’
ìdá
[ìdá]
‘sheep‘
Yukuben
Phonetic
Gloss
ọ̣́tọ̣̀n apá
[‫̣́כ‬t‫̣̀כ‬n apá]
‘seven’
[a] low back unrounded vowel
Word initial
Word medial
Word final
[‫ ]כ‬low back unrounded vowel
Word initial
lvii
Word medial
Word final
Ọ̣́ tọ̀n
̣ ara
[‫̣́כ‬tọ̀n
̣ ara]
‘eight
bọ̀g
̣ ọ̀ ̣
[b ̣̀‫כ‬g ̣̀‫]כ‬
‘yam’
Kígé ọnu
[Kígé ‫כ‬nu]
‘dry season’
ahọ̣́
[ah‫]̣́כ‬
‘buttocks’
emọ̣́
[em‫]כ‬
‘feaces‘
[o] Non-high back rounded vowel
Word initial
Word medial
Word final
Yukuben
Phonetic
Gloss
ólák
[ólák]
‘jaw’
Óríp
[óríp]
‘heart’
górò
[ǵorò]
‘kolanut’
Ihoho
[ihoho]
‘snow’
hóhó
[hóhó]
‘river’
ózo
[ózo]
‘farm’
[u] high back rounded vowel
Word initial
Yukuben
Phonetic
Gloss
uzi
[uzi]
‘thief’
úlím
[úlím]
‘bush’
lviii
Word medial
Word final
buyan
[bujã]
‘hunger ’
Óvúm ábá
[Óvúm ábá]
‘sunshine’
íjú
[ídΛ ú]
‘seed’
kítú
[kítú]
‘chin’
The following nasalized vowels are attested in Yukuben.
They are shown in a chart below.
Front
High
Back
Central
ũ
ĩ
Mid high
õ
Mid low ̃
ã
low
Yukuben nasalized vowel chart
Distribution of Yukuben nasalized vowels.
[ĩ] high front unrounded nasalized vowel
Yukuben
Phonetic
lix
́
Gloss
Word final
úzeín
[úzeĩ]
‘hair’
kósín
[kósĩ]
‘leg’
[̃] Front non-low unrounded nasalized vowel
Word final
Yukuben
Phonetic
kíbẹ̣́n
[kíb̃]
kirẹ̣́n
[Kir̃]
́
Gloss
‘snail’
́
‘hawk’
[ã] low back unrounded nasalized vowel
Yukuben
Word final
Phonetic
Λ
étsan
Λ
[étsã]
béyán
́
[béjã
̣́ ]
Gloss
‘saliva’
‘blood’
[ũ] High back rounded nasalized vowel
Word final
Yukuben
Phonetic
Gloss
úhún
[úhũ]́
‘soup’
lx
́
[bùkũ]
bùkùn
‘well’
[õ] Non high back rounded nasalized vowel
Word final
2.3
Yukuben
Phonetic
Gloss
zón
[zõ]́
‘spin’ (thread)
chón
́
[t∫õ]
Λ
‘carry’ (load)
TONE SYSTEM IN YUKUBEN LANGUAGE
There are two types of tone system. They are:

Contour tone

Registered tone
There are three types of registered tones namely: High, mid
and low. Graphically, they are represented thus:
High tone (
)
Mid tone (
)
lxi
Low tone (
)
Yukuben language operates a registered tone system, that
is, they attest high, mid and low tones. Phonemically, only two
tones (high and low) are orthographically represented. The mid
tone is not shown at all.
Below are the illustrations of the occurrence of these tones.
High tone
[bá]
‘call’
[gú]
‘beat’
[tú]
‘push’
Mid tone
[ema]
‘husband’
[wo]
‘work’
[uma]
‘war’
Low tone
[b‫̣̀כ‬g‫]̣̀כ‬
‘yam’
lxii
[bì]
‘mud’
[kìndà]
‘cow’
High – high tone
[édĩ]́
‘teeth’
[óríp]
‘heart’
[kíkí]
‘head’
Low-mid tone
[kìh‫]כ‬
‘lizard’
[dère]
‘hundred’
2.4
SYLLABLE STRUCTURE IN YUKUBEN LANGUAGE
Ladefoged
(1975:248)
states
that
“syllable
may
be
considered to be abstract units that exist at some higher level in
the mental activity of a speaker”.
lxiii
Ladefoged further explained that a syllable can also be
divided for descriptive purpose into its onset and rhyme. The
rhyming part of syllable consists of the vowel and any consonant
that comes after it. Any consonant rhyme form the onset of the
syllable. The rhyme of a syllable can also be the nucleus, which is
the vocalic part, and the coda, which consist of any final
consonant.
The Yukuben syllable consists of an ‘onset’ and the ‘core’.
The core could be further divided into two segments: the peak and
the coda as shown in the following tree diagram.
Syllable
Onset
Core
Peak
lxiv
Coda
∂
o
c
d
dìm
c
p
c
v
c
ì
m
‘Send’
In a CVC syllable structure, the first c stands as the onset,
the V is the peak while the last C is the coda. According to Hyman
(1975) it is not all syllables that have the onset and the coda but
every syllable has a peak or nucleus.
A syllable can be open or close. An open syllable ends with
a vowel while a closed syllable ends with a consonant.
Yukuben language makes use of both open and close
syllable. A syllable can either be mono, di or tri syllabic as
illustrated below:
lxv
Mono-syllabic words: word that has single syllable.
[l ‫]̣̀כ‬
‘swallow’
Cv
Λ
[gbá]
‘drink’
Cv
Λ
[kpà]
‘vomit
Cv
Di-syllabic words: words that have two syllables.
Kì # vá
[kìvá]
‘calabash’
Cvcv
Kú # vù [kúvù]
‘dust’
Cvcv
Kú # le
[kúle]
‘cat’
Cvcv
lxvi
Tri-syllabic words: words that have three syllables.
Kì # zà # kí
[kìzàkí]
‘horse’
Cvcvcv
Kì # kpá
# sú [kikpásu]
Λ
Λ
‘tortoise’
Cvcvcv
u#ru#ga
‘day’
[uruga]
Vcvcv
2.5
PHASE STRUCTURE RULES
Horrocks (1987:31) says that phrase structure rules are
formal devices for representing the distribution of the phrases
within sentences.
Lamidi (2000:31) phase structure rule “involves the linear of
a structure. The rule states constituents that make up a structure
and their order in the structure.” The meaning of phrase structure
rule could be explained as a rule which tells or identify any item or
categories that exist in a sentence without leaving anyone out.
lxvii
In a nutshell, it is discovered in the phrase structure rule that
a sentence of any type should at least be written as S – NP INFL
VP, that is to rewrite the sentence as consisting of the NP which is
the Noun phrase, the INFL which is the same as “Auxiliary” and
may consist of tense (TNS), Agreement (AGR) Modal (M) and
Aspect (ASP) as well as the VP which is the verb phrase.
According to Horrocks the phrase structure rules have the
following sets.
S – NP
VP
NP – V
(NP)
VP – (DET) (ADJ) N (PP) (RC)
S – Sentence
NP – Noun phrase
VP – Verb phrase
DET – Determiner
ADJ – Adjective
PP – Prepositional phrase
lxviii
RC – Relative clause
The phrase structure rules disclose the contents of a phrase
or a sentence.
The phrase structure rules include:
 Noun phrase
 Verb phrase
 Prepositional phrase

Adjective phrase
2.5.1 Noun phrase in Yukuben Language
Stock well (1977:66) states that noun phrase are clusters of
words in surface strings of which the nuclei are Nouns.
A noun phrase is headed by a noun. It is the elements that
function as subject, object and complement of preposition.
Examples of noun phrases in Yukuben
(a) Édúŋ Èlégè
Child
girl
(b) Édúŋ Únyàlem
child
boy
lxix
(c) Ákep
Bobub
woman ugly
The girl
the boy
the ugly woman
NP
Spec
N1
N
Édúŋ
child
Èlégè
girl
‘The girl’
Note; Eduŋ, means child (small).
2.5.2 Verb Phrase in Yukuben Language
According to Yusuf (1997:21) says verb phrase is
“traditionally called ‘the predicate’ because it has the sentence
predicator namely the verb”. The verb phrase is headed by a verb.
It expresses or allocates roles to Noun phrase in the sentence. It is
the lexical category that tells us what the participatory roles of the
nominal are in the sentence.
lxx
Examples of verb phrases in Yukuben
Λ
(i) òtu
ít∫á
cook
fish
‘cook the fish’
(ii) bónk
émĩ
Kill
goat
‘Kill the goat’
VP
Spec
VI
V
NP
NI
N
bonk
émĩ
Kill
goat
‘Kill the goat’
2.5.3 Prepositional Phrase in Yukuben Language
lxxi
It usually begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or
a pronoun. The prepositional phrase is headed by a preposition,
function as either complement or adjunct to the noun head or verb.
Prepositional phrase codes semantic information like location,
manner and instrument.
The structure of Yukuben prepositional phrase is descried
thus:
PP
i. ale
On
P NP
tábùrù
table
‘on the table’
ii. ele
In
kózò
garden
‘In the garden’
lxxii
PP
Spec
PP
Spec
P1
P
ale
NP
P1
P
NP
N1
N1
N
N
taburu
ele
On
table
‘On the table’
Kozo
In garden
‘In the garden’
garden
2.5.4 Adjective Phrase
An adjective phrase is a phrase that has the adjective which
qualifies, describes or modifies a noun or pronoun. An adjective
phrase is headed by an adjective. The phrase can either consist of
an adjective or adjective with modifiers. Examples in Yukuben
i.
Kìdà
ínyìŋ
lxxiii
Bag
dirty
‘dirty bag’
ii.
Socks
átín
Socks
white
‘White socks’
Adjp
Spec
AI
NP
AI
N1
N
kida
inying
bag
dirty
‘dirty bag’
2.6
LEXICAL CATEGORIES IN YUKUBEN LANGAUGE
Lexical categories are referred to as the part of speech in
classical grammar. Lexical categories fall into two major divisions.
lxxiv
These are described as open class of words and closed class of
words.
Open class: They are part of speech that allow new
members. For example Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives and Adverbs.
Close class: They are part of speech that does not allow
new members. For example, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions,
auxiliaries and determiners.
There are seven parts of speech in Yukuben, they are:
 Nouns
 Pronouns
 Verbs
 Adjectives
 Adverbs
 Prepositions
 Conjunctions
They will be discussed one after the other.
lxxv
2.6.1 NOUNS IN YUKUBEN
Alabi T.A (2005:22) define noun as a word used to name or
identify a person, animal, place or thing which may include objects,
qualities, actions ideas or concepts
Examples of nouns in Yukuben;
Yukuben
Gloss
kìdà
‘bag’
kíré
‘basket’
idum
‘son’
áhà
‘mother’
ìtatò
‘hunter’
lxxvi
2.6.1.1
TYPES OF NOUNS IN YUKUBEN
Nouns are classified into different sub-groups according to
form and composition. They are considered below:
 Proper nouns: These are nouns which refer to specific people,
places or institutions. In other words the name is peculiar to it
alone and no one else.
Examples of proper nouns in Yukuben
Names: Adamu, Kuru
Place: Taraba State, Takum.
People: Jukun, Uhumkhigi
 Common nouns: These are nouns which are used to refer to
objects of the same kind, that is, they share names in common
with all other members of their class.
Examples in Yukuben
lxxvii
Yukuben
Gloss
búná
‘food’
Íbí
‘animal’
únyãlém
́
‘man’
idún ulim
‘child’
 Concrete nouns: This refers to those nouns that can be seen,
smelled, felt, tasted or touched. Concrete nouns can be
perceived by at least one of our senses. Examples are;
Yukuben
Gloss
búmà
‘salt’
bút∫à
Λ
‘cotton’
kámáŋ
‘knife’
Λ
kít∫ó
‘axe’
 Abstract nouns: This denote some quality, state or action of
person or object which we can only observe, feel or experience
but cannot be touched. Examples in Yukuben.
lxxviii
Yukuben
Gloss
B̣́rã́
‘fear’
ébrí
‘stink’
́
búj‫̃כ‬
‘hunger’
oŋrip
‘thirsty’
 Countable nouns: These are nouns that can be numerically
identified, that is, counted. Examples in Yukuben
Yukuben
Gloss
bàtrì
‘cloth’
kaítém
‘house’
ó o
‘farm’
àkpáábá
‘shoe’
 Uncountable nouns: These are nouns that cannot be
numerically identified.
lxxix
Uncountable nouns are also known as mass noun. They don’t
take affixes (suffix) for their pluralization, nor are they modified
with numerals. In other to quantify these types of nouns, you will
preface them with a phrase such as “a glass of” “a little” or “a lot”.
Examples in Yukuben:
Yukuben
Gloss
bémáŋ
‘water’
kúvù
‘dust’
kúbĩ úfé
́
‘wind’
ètébi
‘rain’
 Animate noun: Any living thing or being is said to be animate
Yukuben
Gloss
́
únjãlém
‘man’
kúle
‘cat’
ìwú
‘dog’
lxxx
kìzàkí
‘horse’
 Inanimate nouns:
This refers to non-living things.
Yukuben
Gloss
bézim
‘smoke’
Λ
‘stone’
étsi
Λ
‘tree’
húnla
‘fire wood’
kít∫ó
 Compound
nouns:
These
combination of two nouns.
Yukuben
Gloss
bangí báma
‘oil palm’
íhĩ ́
‘guinea corn’
húnla
‘firewood’
Λ
èd íjã̀
‘rubbish heap’
lxxxi
are
nouns
formed
by
the
 Collective Nouns: This refer to a group, collection, or multitude
of people, animal, things or object considered as one complete
whole having some traits in common.
For example family,
team, herd, choir and flock. In Yukuben we have:
Yukuben
Gloss
ídΛ ú
‘seed’
étsi
Λ
‘tree’
íbí
‘animal’
Λ
kéhín kít∫ò
‘town’
2.6.2 PRONOUNS IN YUKUBEN
lxxxii
Pronouns are used in place of noun in a sentence. It is used
to replace a noun in context in other to eliminate repetition and
therefore avoid monotony in use of words.
2.6.2.1
TYPES OF PRONOUNS IN YUKUBEN
 Personal pronouns
 Possessive pronouns
 Relative pronouns
 Reflexive pronouns
 Interrogative pronouns
 Personal Pronouns: Personal pronouns take the place of
nouns when referring to people, places or things.
Personal Pronouns in Yukuben
lxxxiii
Subject
Object
Possessive
I
Me
Mine
1st
àmà [àmà]
àmà [àmà]
ánim [ánim]
2nd
You
You
Your’s
àmú [àmú]
àmú [àmú]
àyín [ àjĩ ]
He, she, it
Him, her, it
His, her
àmí [àmí]
àmí [àmí]
abí [abí]
We
Us
Our’s
1st
azí [azí]
azí [azí]
azí [azí]
2nd
You
You
Your’s
àmú [àmú]
àmú [àmú]
àyín [àjĩ]
They
Them
Their’s
abí [abí]
abí [abí]
abí [abí]
Singular
3rd
Plural
3rd
́
́
Possessive Pronouns in Yukuben
These are pronouns that indicate ownership. They function as
determiner or possessive objects. Examples are shown below.
Yukuben
Gloss
ánim
‘mine’
azí
‘ours’
́
̣̀ajĩ
‘yours’
lxxxiv
abí
‘his/her’
abí
‘theirs’
 Relative Pronouns: This is used to introduce a dependent
clause and to relate that clause to another element in the
sentence. Examples in Yukuben.
Yukuben
Gloss
elé
‘who’
Λ
t∫on
‘that’
 Reflexive Pronouns: It shows that the action performed by the
subject and signified by the verb is received by the subject
itself. Examples in Yukuben.
Yukuben
Gloss
̣̀tú nghi kem
‘herself’
kó-ayi
‘themselves’
kíkiném
‘myself’
lxxxv
 Interrogative Pronouns: These are pronouns used to
generate or ask questions. Examples in Yukuben.
Yukuben
Gloss
elé
‘who’
éjì
‘what’
ele
‘where’
lo
‘when’
eléwú
‘why’
̀
áwã
‘how’
2.6.3 VERBS IN YUKUBEN
A verb is a word that expresses an action, an event or state
of being of the person or object denoted by the subject of a
sentence. Verbs can be transitive or intransitive.
lxxxvi
2.6.3.1
Transitive verbs in Yukuben
A verb is said to be transitive when the action of the subject is
transferred to an object by the verb. It requires an object to
complete its meaning. Examples in Yukuben.
Yukuben
Gloss
ízí
‘steal’
bùkrìtó
‘break (pot)’
zím
‘sew’
2.6.3.2
Intransitive verbs in Yukuben
An intransitive verb is a verb that does not require an object to
complete its meaning. In other words, it refers to an action that
ends with the doer and concerns no other person or thing.
Examples in Yukuben.
lxxxvii
Yukuben
Gloss
wun àtsù
‘jump’
Λ
gít∫é
‘laugh’
Λ
íkp‫̣́כ‬
‘weep’
Example in sentence
Λ
̣̀amí íkp‫̣́כ‬
she weep
‘she
wept’
2.6.4 ADJECTIVES IN YUKUBEN LANGUAGE
Adjectives are used to qualify a noun or pronoun in a
sentence. An adjective gives more information about a noun or
pronoun. Examples in Yukuben:
Yukuben
Gloss
lxxxviii
kíma
‘red’
kìkìm
‘short’
kít∫ò
Λ
‘big’
abak
‘hot’
2.6.5 ADVERBS IN YUKUBEN LANGUAGE
An adverb is a word or group of words that modify a verb, an
adjective or another adverb. It usually answers questions like
how? When? Where?. Adverbs could be of time, place, manner,
purpose, result, concession and degree.
 Adverb of time in Yukuben
This type of adverb indicates the time or period an action is
performed.
Yukuben
Gloss
kígé ovà
‘rainy season’
lxxxix
kígé ‫כ‬nú
‘dry season’
 Adverb of place in Yukuben
This adverb makes reference to a place where an action
occurs. Examples are:
Yukuben
Gloss
bètsí
‘market’
ózo
‘farm’
ùtík
‘mountain’
2.6.6 PREPOSITIONS IN YUKUBEN LANGUAGE
Preposition is a word that is used with a noun or a pronoun to
show the relation of such a noun or pronoun to some other words
or a word in a sentence. Examples in Yukuben
Yukuben
Gloss
írím
‘beside’
xc
ale
‘on’
ele
‘in’
kéméŋ
‘under’
2.6.7 CONJUNCTIONS IN YUKUBEN
Conjunctions are words which join two words, phrases,
clauses or sentences together thus showing a kind of relationship
between them. Examples in Yukuben
Yukuben
Gloss
éyí
‘and’
kìhíŋ
‘if’
Λ
t∫on
‘that’
2.7 BASIC WORD ORDER
Every language has a basic word order. Greenberg (1966:74)
describes word order as the manner the subject, verb and object
co-occur in any simple declarative sentence.
xci
In other words, it is the arrangement of words, typically
subject, verb and object of a sentence in a particular order in a
language.
Greenberg (1966:76) identify six different forms of possible
basic word order. They are listed below.

Subject – verb – object
SVO

Subject – object - verb
SOV

Verb – subject – object
VSO

Verb – object – subject
VOS

Object – verb – subject
OVS

Object – subject – verb
OSV
According to Greenberg (1966:76), only three normally occur
in dominant orders. These are SVO, SOV, VSO. The other three
are not very common. Yukuben operates the SVO word order.
Examples are:
S
(1)
Àmà
v
gyá
o
Àkpáábá
xcii
I
buy
shoe
‘I bought shoes’
S
v
o
(2) Tola
ísún
ḅ̀ ‫כ‬g‫̣̀כ‬
Tola
like
yam
‘Tola likes yam’
(3)
S
v
o
Bola
jí
búná
Bola
eat
food
‘Bola ate food’
(4)
S
v
o
John
bónk
émín
John
kill
goat
xciii
‘John killed the goat’
S
v
o
Λ
(5) Shade
Shade
òtu
bàkpà
cook
maize
‘Shade cooked maize’
IP
Spec
NP
II
I
VP
N
Tns
pres
Agr
VI
Spec
V
NP
N
Tola
ísún
b‫̀כ‬g̀‫ כ‬xciv
Tola
like
yam
‘Tola likes yam’
2.8
SENTENCE TYPES
Sentence is described by classical grammarians as “a group
of words, or sometimes a single word which makes a statement, a
command, expression of wish, a question, an exclamation”. (Yusuf
1992:101).
Yusuf (1997:58) says that in conventional treatment of the
sentence, three types are identified, where such analysis depend
solely on the number of verbs in the sentence. These sentence
types are:
(i)
Simple sentence
(ii)
Compound sentence
(iii)
Complex sentence
2.8.1 SIMPLE SENTENCE IN YUKUBEN
xcv
The simple sentence is made up of one NP subject and a
predicate (traditionally regarded
as a single verb). Examples are:
Λ
(i)
Λ
Kuru
jí
Ít∫á
Kuru
eat
fish
‘kuru ate fish’
(ii)
Audu
gyá
Audu
buy
gímì
millet
‘Audu bought millet’
IP
II
Spec
NP
N
VP
II
Tns
Past
(ed)
Agr
VI
Spec
V
NP
N
xcvi
Kuru
Jí
Λ
Ít∫á
2.8.2
COMPOUND SENTENCE IN YUKUBEN
Olujide, T.M. (2005: 54) a compound sentence is a
combination of two or more simple sentences or main clauses
joined together by a coordinating conjunction, like (and, but etc) or
a correlative conjunction like (both, either etc). Examples are:
(i)
Ahmadu
éyí
Godoro
Ahmadu
and
Godoro
ézì
bángì-báyá
is
lazy
‘Ahmadu and Godoro are lazy‘
(ii)
Àmà
I
lú
have
ìtákàdá
book
xcvii
éyí
and
biro
biro
‘I have a book and a biro’
2.8.3 COMPLEX SENTENCE IN YUKUBEN
Yusuf (1997:63) says “a complex sentence is a sentence
embedded in one of the phrasal categories NP or VP”. He said
further that the complex sentence is traditionally known as a main
clause and a number of subordinate clause. A main clause is a
clause that can stand alone that is not depending on another
clause. Examples are:
i.
Ézí
Is
ógyé
àmí
man
he
gyá
buy
moto
car
“He is the man who bought the car”.
ii.
Àmà
I
roug
don’t
aruŋ
know
kíhíŋ
whether
xcviii
ákép
she
iba
come
‘I don’t know whether she will come’
iii.
Ahmadu
gyá
àkpáábá
àmí
Ali
dè
Ahmadu
buy
shoe
he
Ali
take
‘Ahmadu bought the shoes which Ali took’
xcix
CHAPTER THREE
THE YUKUBEN NOUN PHRASE
3.0
INTRODUCTION
This chapter is the main work of this research, the noun
phrase of Yukuben, which include noun in Yukuben word order,
the noun and noun satellites in Yukuben, functions of the noun
phrase, modification of noun by Adjective, determiners and
preposition.
The case assignment and thematic role assignment in
Yukuben noun phrase are also discussed.
3.1
YUKUBEN NOUN PHRASE
Noun phrase in Yukuben is a cluster of words in the surface
strings of which the nucleus is noun. The Np in Yukuben is headed
by a noun or pronoun. It is by virtue of this headedness that the
phrase is called the noun phrase of Yukuben.
c
3.2
The noun in Yukuben word order
The noun in Yukuben normally occupies the subject and the
object positions. For example, types of noun in Yukuben can be
found in each of the following syntactic positions:

Noun at subject position (s)

Noun at object position (o), this can be further divided into
two:
Noun at direct object position (Do)
Noun at indirect object position (Io)
1. Noun at subject position: The noun is found in the
sentence initial position before the verb in Yukuben.
Examples are:
i.
Joseph dìn
bètsí
Joseph go
market
‘Joseph went to the market’
ci
ii.
Amphas brìm
Ákep
Amphas follow woman
‘Amphas followed the woman’
(2(i)) Noun at direct object position (Do)
The noun occur after the verb in Yukuben. Examples are:
(i) Juliet jí búná
Juliet
eat food
‘Juliet ate the food’
(ii) Janet ugbé kitú b̣́m‫̣́כ‬
Janet wash water pot
‘Janet washed the water pot’
(2(ii)) Noun at indirect object position (Io)
The noun occur after the preposition in Yukuben
(i) Kuru laí
írím
kaítém
Kuru sit beside house
cii
‘Kuru sat beside the house’
(ii) Blessing gya b‫̣̀כ‬g‫ ̣̀כ‬ele bètsí
Blessing buy yam
in market
‘Blessing bought yam in the market’
3.3
The Noun and Noun Satellites in Yukuben
The noun and noun satellites are divided into two:
 Noun as head and
 Noun and satellites
3.3.1 The Noun Head in Yukuben
The noun head in Yukuben is the obligatory part of the noun
phrase around which other constituents cluster. For example:
́
Adamu ézí bugbã
Adamu is
strong
ciii
‘Adamu is
strong’
“Adamu” in the above sentence is the noun head, while “is strong”
are other constituents in the sentence.
The noun head in Yukuben also dictates concord with other
parts of the sentence. This means, there must be an agreement
between the noun head with other constituents in Yukuben
sentence.
3.3.2 The noun and its satellites in Yukuben
The satellites of the noun phrase in Yukuben are the
elements that can co-occur with nouns within the Np in Yukuben.
Nouns come first in Yukuben noun phrase and the satellites
of the noun follow the noun in Np.
civ
The Np in Yukuben have the following elements embedded
in it, as one of its satellites. These include:
 Adjective phrase (ADJP)
 Determiner phrase (DP)
 Prepositional phrase (PP)
3.3.2.1 Modification of Np in Yukuben by Adjective
Adjectives in Yukuben are used to qualify a noun or
pronoun in Yukuben. The adjectives occur after the noun head in
the following examples in Yukuben.
(i) Ákep
Woman
Bourib
beautiful
‘beautiful woman’
(ii) Bètsí
Market
Λ
kí t∫ò
big
‘big market’
cv
NP
Spec
NI
Adjp
N
AI
Ákep
Woman
Bourib
Beautiful
‘beautiful woman’
3.3.2.2 Modification of Np in Yukuben by determiner
Determiners in Yukuben are part of the satellites of noun
phrase in Yukuben. Determiner in Yukuben occurs after the noun
(post-modifiers). Determiners in Yukuben include: quantifiers,
numerals and possessives.
Quantifiers in Yukuben
A quantifier in Yukuben is any word or expression which
gives a relative or indefinite indication of quantity. Examples in
Yukuben are: bábí ‘some’ aga ‘many’, batén ‘few’.
i.
Bangyi
People
bábí
some
cvi
‘some people’
ii. Bàtrì
batén
Clothes few
‘few clothes’
Cardinal Numerals in Yukuben
Cardinal numerals in Yukuben indicates the precise number
in a set. They occur after the noun head in a phrase in Yukuben.
Examples are:
i.
Lèmú
apá
Orange two
‘Two oranges’
ii. Kíré
éntsì
Basket four
‘four baskets’
Possessives in Yukuben
This shows the possession of a word in Yukuben. Examples
are:
cvii
i.
Áhà
azí
Mother
our
‘our mother’
ii. Àbà
ánim
Father
my
‘my father’
3.3.2.3 Modification of Np in Yukuben by preposition
A preposition in Yukuben is a word used with a noun or a
pronoun to show the relation of such a noun or pronoun to some
other words in Yukuben sentence.
Examples are: ale ‘on’, ele ‘in’, írím ‘beside’
1. Ale
On
ózo
farm
‘on the farm’
cviii
2. Írím
kaítém
Beside house
‘beside the house’
PP
PP
Spec
Spec
PI
P
PI
P
NP
N
N
ale
ózo
On
Farm
NP
írím
kaítém
Beside
house
‘beside the house’
‘on the farm’
cix
3.4
Functions of Noun Phrase in Yukuben
Noun phrase perform three functions in Yukuben, these are:
 Subject of the verb
 Object of the verb
 Prepositional complements.
3.4.1 Noun Phrase as subject of the verb
The Np is found at the initial position before the verb.
Examples are:
i.
Imgbe gbá bémáŋ
Imgbe drink water
‘Imgbe drank water’
ii. Daudu
Daudu
bónk i rú
kill
rat
‘Daudu killed the rat’
cx
IP
IP
II
Spec
Vp
I
Np
Tns Agr I
V
I [past]
N
Np
V
NI
N
e
Imgbe
Imgbe
Vp
I
Np
N
II
Spec
gbá
drink
Tns Agr I
V
NI [past]
Np
V
NI
N
bémáŋ
Water
Daudu
Daudu
‘Imgbe drank water’
N
e
bónk
kill
i rú
rat
‘Daudu Killed the rat’
3.4.2 Noun phrase as object of the verb (direct object)
The Np comes after a verb in Yukuben Sentence. Examples
are:
i.
Kuru
gía
kaítém
cxi
Kuru
sell
house
‘kuru sold the house’
ii. Lillian
òtu
Lillian
búná
cook food
‘Lillian cooked the food’
IP
II
Spec
Np
I
N
N
Vp
I
Tns Agr I
V
[past]
Np
V
NI
e
N
kuru
gía
kaítém
kuru
house
sell
‘kuru sold the house’
3.4.3 Noun phrase as prepositional complement
cxii
The Np comes after the preposition to complete the
meaning of the sentence. Examples are:
i.
Blessing luu búná dí tábùrù
Blessing put food
on table
‘Blessing put the food on the table’
ii. David lai dí íkìrí
David sit on mat
‘David sat on mat’
IP
II
Spec
Vp
I
Np
I
N
Tns Agr I
V
[past]
V
N
Np
NI
N
e
PP
PI
NP
P
NI
N
Blessing
Blessing
luu
put
búná dí tábùrù
food on table
‘Blessing put the food on the table’
cxiii
3.5
Noun Phrase and case assignment in Yukuben
Case means a form modification of a word used to express
certain meaning or to denote certain relation to another word in a
clause or a sentence. In Yukuben, we identified three cases, these
are: Nominative case, Accusative case and oblique case.
3.5.1 Nominative case: This case is assigned by tensed INFL
3.5.2 Accusative case: This case is assigned by verb
3.5.3 Oblique case: This case is assigned by preposition.
The following examples explain case assignment to Np in
Yukuben.
i.
Peter gú
Gloria
ale kíkí
Peter beat Gloria on head
‘Peter beat Gloria on the head’
ii. John saŋ
samuel ele kétím
cxiv
John see
Samuel in
room
‘John saw Samuel in the room’
IP
II
Spec
Vp
I
Np
I
N
Tns Agr VI
[past]
Np
V
N
e
NI
PP
N
PI
NP
P
NI
N
Peter
Peter
Nom
gú Gloria ale kíkí
beat Gloria on head
Acc
obli
‘Peter beat Gloria on the head’
3.6
Noun phrase and thematic role assignment in Yukuben
Thematic role assignment in Yukuben Np show that each
argument (that is subject or complement) of a predicate bears a
cxv
particular ‘thematic role’ (also known as theta-role, to its
predicate), and that the set of thematic functions which arguments
can fulfill are drawn from a highly restricted, finite, universal set.
In Yukuben, we identified eight (8) theta roles. These are:

Theme

Agent

Experiencer

Benefactive

Instrument

Locative

Goal
 Source
The above listed theta roles are explained and exemplified (in
which the underlined argument is assumed to have the thematic
function specified).
cxvi
3.6.1 Theme (or patient): Entity undergoing the effect of some
action.
Juliet
ínjá-kù
Juliet
fall
ele
Λ
kítsì
on ground
‘Juliet fell on the ground’
3.6.2 Agent (or actor): Instigator of some action.
Micheal
bónk
kidak nye
Micheal
kill
cow
the
‘Micheal killed the cow’
3.6.3 Experiencer: Entity experiencing some psychological state.
Matthew
Matthew
́
ézí búj‫̃כ‬
is
hungry
‘Matthew is hungry’
3.6.4 Benefactive: Entity benefiting from some action.
cxvii
Johnson gya
kìdà ndá Dammy
Johnson
bag for
buy
Dammy
‘Johnson bought a bag for Dammy’
3.6.5 Instrument: Means by which something comes about
Andrew bónk èmín ye
Andrew kill
Kámáŋ
goat with knife
‘Andrew killed the goat with a knife’
3.6.6 Locative: Place in which something is situated or take
place.
Ìtatò
bónk
Hunter kill
ìtàmì
ele úlím
leopard in
bush
‘The Hunter killed a leopard in the bush’
3.6.7 Goal: Entity towards which something moves
Paul ndà
Helen ìtákàdá
Paul give Helen book
‘Paul gave Helen the book’
cxviii
3.6.8 Source: Entity from which something moves
Samuel sírím
Samuel
éle
Lagos
return from Lagos
‘Samuel returned from Lagos’
cxix
CHAPTER FOUR
TRANSFORMATIONAL PROCESSES IN YUKUBEN
4.0
INTRODUCTION
Transformational process involving noun phrase in Yukuben
are: focus construction, relativi ation, question formation and
reflexivi ation.
4.1
FOCUS CONSTRUCTION IN YUKUBEN NP
Focus construction in Yukuben Np is a way of introducing
special marking into the surface structure of the constituent that is
being focused in Yukuben. All the constituents in Yukuben
sentence can be focused.
The basic focus marker in Yukuben is ‘áhen’. The following
focus constructions are attested in Yukuben Np.

Subject Np focusing

Direct object Np focusing

Indirect Object Np focusing
cxx
To have the derived focus sentences in Yukuben, we will have
a basic sentence.
Basic Sentences
i.
Adamu gyá Àkpààbà ndá Audu
Adamu buy
shoe
for Audu
‘Adamu bought shoe for Audu
ii. Kuru
Kuru
áfen
kìsàpú nyì
open
door
the
‘Kuru opened the door’
Derived Sentences
4.1.1 Subject Np focusing
The subject Np occur after the focus marker at the initial
position. Examples are:
i.
Áhen
Adamu gyá
Àkpààbà ndá Audu
Foc
Adamu
shoe
buy
for Audu
‘It is Adamu that bought shoe for Audu’
cxxi
ii.
Áhen kuru àfen
Foc
kísápù nyí
kuru open door
the
‘It is kuru that opened the door’
4.1.2 Direct object Np focusing
The direct object Np occur after the focus marker at the
initial position (fronted). Examples are:
(i) Áhen Àkpààbà Adamu
Foc
shoe
gyá ndá Audu
Adamu
buy for
Audu
‘It is shoe that Adamu bought for Audu’
(ii) Áhen kìsàpú kuru fen
Foc
door
kuru open
‘It is door that kuru opened’
4.1.3 Indirect object Np focusing
The indirect object Np is fronted and moved to the sentence
initial position after the focus marker. Examples are:
cxxii
(i)
Áhen Audu Adamu gyá àkpààbà ndá
Foc
Audu Adamu
buy shoe
for
‘It was Audu that Adamu bought shoe for’.
FP
FI
Spec
NP
F
IP
Spec
II
I
N
NP
N
I
VP
NITns Agr I
V
[past]
N
V
NP
PP
NI
N
Ǿ
Áhen Adamu
foc Adamu
PI
NP
P
N
gyá Àkpààbà ndá
buy Shoe
for
Audu
Audu
‘It is Adamu that bought shoe for Audu’
cxxiii
4.2
Relativization in Yukuben
Relativization in Yukuben is a process whereby an
embedded sentence is linked with the main constituents with the
aid of WH relative pronoun. Relative marker “ame is used to
introduce the embedded clause into the noun phrase in Yukuben.
In the formation of relative clause in Yukuben, a sentence
that is embedded in another is known as a “constituent sentence”
and the one in which it is embedded is known as “matrix
sentence”. For example:
(a) Constituent sentence
Àmí
gyá
kaítém
cxxiv
She
buy
house
‘She bought the house’
(b) Matrix sentence
Àmà arung
Ákep
I
woman
know
‘I know the woman’
If sentence (a) is embedded in (b), with relativization applied as
a transformational process in Yukuben, we have (c).
(c) Àmà orúm
I
know
ákep
ame
woman Rel
gyá
kaítém
buy
house
‘I know the woman who bought the house’
In Yukuben, we identified two types of positions in a noun
phrase that can be relativised. These are:
 Subject Np relativization
 Object Np relativization
cxxv
4.2.1 Subject Np relativization
(i)
Ógyé ame bahan ózú
Man
Rel
nye ézí elém
report case the
is
here
‘The man who reported the case is here’
(ii)
Daniel ame
lai
Daniel
live
Rel
Kaduna gyá mótó upìí
Kaduna buy
car
new
‘Daniel who lives in Kaduna bought a new car’
NP
NI
N
CP
CI
Spec
WH
IP
C
II
Spec
VP
I
I
Tns Agr V
[past]
V
N
IP
II
Spec
NP
I
VP
I
NI
cxxvi
N
Tns Agr VI
[past]
Det
V
NP
P
NI
N
4.2.2 Object Np relativization
Ózú ame ógyé bahan
(i)
Case Rel man report
‘The case which the man reported’
Mótó ame Daniel gyá
(ii)
Car
Rel
Daniel buy
‘The car which Daniel bought’
NP
NI
N
CP
Spec
WH
CI
IP
C
II
Spec
Ǿ
I
Ǿ Tns Agr
[past]
VP
Spec
cxxvii
VI
4.3
Question formation in Yukuben
Question formation in Yukuben is a syntactic process which
forms an interrogative construction.
Questions in Yukuben are of two types. These are:
Yes/No question
WH-Question
4.3.1 Yes/No question in Yukuben
cxxviii
Yes/No question in Yukuben require Yes/No answer. The
question marker for yes/no question in Yukuben do not reflect in
it’s sentence structure. Examples are:
(i) Ómu tàbàtà?
You
sure?
‘Are you sure?
(ii) Janet dèng makaranta?
Janet go
school?
‘Did Janet go to school?
4.3.2 WH-Question in Yukuben
WH-question in Yukuben can also be referred to as contentword question, which require new information. The WH-Questions
in Yukuben are: aree ‘what’, ayee ‘who’ wáni ‘when’ are ‘where’
áhàn ‘how’ ne’aree ‘why’.
cxxix
Examples in Yukuben sentences
(i) Janet bu aree?
Janet do what?
‘What did Janet do?’
(ii) Ayee jí
atak
Who eat beans
‘Who ate beans?’
CP
CI
Spec
WH
C
IP
Ǿ Spec
II
I
Ǿ
Tns Agr
[past]
VP
cxxx
VI
NP
V
NI
4.4
Reflexivization in Yukuben
Reflexivization in Yukuben is a process whereby the subject
and object refers to the same entity.
Example are:
(i) Àmí bóng angyi
She
kill
herself
‘She killed herself’
(ii) Àmà shóng kíkiném
I
love
myself
cxxxi
‘I love myself
IP
Spec
NP
II
I
VP
NI Tns Agr
[pres]
P
VI
NP
V
NI
P
Àmà
I
shong Kíkiném
love Myself
‘I love myself’
cxxxii
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.0
INTRODUCTION
This chapter summarizes the entire work done in this project.
It also presents the findings observed in the progress of this
research work.
5.1
SUMMARY
This research work begins with the history of the Yukuben
people, their socio-cultural practices which include: Culture, Sociolinguistics profile, Occupation and Religion of the people. It is
observed that Yukuben is used for various activities like trade,
communication among the people, greetings, education (primary
level to JSS1 - 3), entertainment. It is also observed that Yukuben
is a Language, and not a dialect, and the speakers have the
privilege of speaking it anytime. It is also observed that Yukuben
belongs to the Jukunoid phylum under Benue-Congo. Yukuben
cxxxiii
speakers are located in Takum local government between Kastina
Ala and Gamana rivers in Taraba state and also in Cameroon.
It is observed that Yukuben has 24 consonants, 7 oral
vowels and 5 nasal vowels. Yukuben makes use of both open and
close syllable. They also make use of high, mid and low tones. It
is also observed that Yukuben exhibit S.V.O basic word order.
Yukuben also have simple, compound and complex sentence.
It is observed that Yukuben Noun phrase consist of a noun
head and other constituents. The constituents are made up of any
or some of other part of speech like verb, adjective, adverb,
preposition, conjunction and (noun). It is observed that Yukuben
noun head is optionally modified, the modifier include adjectives,
determiners and prepositions. The adjectives and determiners
occur after the noun in Yukuben noun phrase while prepositions
occur within the sentence. The noun in Yukuben word order
occurs at subject and object position. NP in Yukuben function as
subject and object of the verb and as prepositional complement.
cxxxiv
It is also observed that Yukuben NP is assigned three (3) cases,
they are: Nominative, Accusative and Oblique. It is also observed
that Yukuben NP is assigned eight (8) thematic roles like Theme,
Agent, and goal and so on.
It
is
observed
that,
Yukuben
attest
transformational
processes like focus construction, relativization, question formation
and reflexivization but does not attest passivization. All these
aspects were achieved by taken down some basic word items in
Yukuben with the use of Ibadan 400 word list and frame technique
with tape recorder.
5.2
CONCLUSION
In
conclusion,
if
Yukuben
is
encourage
and
make
compulsory for every speaker, especially among the youth, that is,
students at the primary, secondary and tertiary level, this will
prevent the language from dying. And also, the speakers should
develop the interest to communicate in their language.
cxxxv
5.3
RECOMMENDATION
Students, lecturers and researchers can make use of this
work to enhance more productivity in the course of their research.
cxxxvi
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