Chapter 4 - Extended Lecture Outline
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Introduction:
o Preventing injury to the athlete is one of the primary functions of the athletic trainer.
o The athletic trainer should recognize that improper conditioning is one of the primary contributing factors
to sports injury.
o Therapeutic exercises indicate exercises that are used in a rehabilitation program.
o The athletic trainer must have a sound understanding of the principles for improving cardiorespiratory
endurance, muscle strength and endurance and flexibility.
The Relationship Between Athletic Trainers and Strength and Conditioning Coaches
o Role of Athletic Trainer is to critically review the training and conditioning program designed by the
strength and conditioning coach
o If athletes are getting injured by a particular exercise, the athletic trainer should inform the strength and
conditioning coach so an alternative exercise can be substituted
o If athlete is undergoing rehabilitation, modifications and or limitations in the weight room should be
communicated to strength and conditioning coach
o In secondary schools, the athletic trainer may also serve as the strength and conditioning coach
Principles of Conditioning
o The principles of conditioning should be applied to all training programs to minimize the likelihood of
injury.
o Safety: Take time to educate athletes on proper techniques related to sport and make the environment safe.
o Warm-up/cooldown
o Motivation: vary the workouts use periodization can keep program enjoyable
o Overload
 SAID principle: Specific adaptation to imposed demands. When the body is subjected to stresses
and overloads of varying intensities, it will gradually adapt over time to overcome whatever
demands are placed on it.
o Consistency: exercise on a regular schedule
o Progression: Increase intensity gradually and within the athlete’s ability
o Intensity: Stress the intensity rather than the quantity
o Specificity: Identify specific goals for the training program
o Individuality: Adjust or alter workouts based on athlete’s level of ability, training etc.
o Minimize Stress: Consider other aspects of their lives and give them time to be away from the conditioning
demands of their sport
Warm-up and Cooldown
o Warm-up
 Generally accepted but little research in literature to support the efficacy
 Function is to prepare the body physiologically for up coming physical work
 Purpose is to gradually stimulate the cardiorespiratory system, increase blood flow to working
skeletal muscles and increase muscle temperature
 Principles:
 Begin with 2-3 minutes of whole body activities that use large muscle groups (light
jogging), to elevate metabolic rate and core temperature
 Stretching should be sport specific
 Perform sport specific skills related to activity
 Should last 10-15 minutes, and activity should be started within 15 minutes after the
warm-up has been completed
o Cool-down
 Enables the body to cool and return to resting state
 Should last 10-15 minutes
 Experience shows that those who stretch during a cool-down period tend to have less muscle
soreness after strenuous activity.
Cardiorespiratory Endurance
o The ability to perform whole-body large muscle activities for extended periods of time
o Training Techniques for Improving Cardiorespiratory Endurance
 Continuous Training
 Frequency – Must engage in no fewer than 3 sessions a week, if possible should aim for
4-5 sessions a week, should take one day off a week to allow for both psychological and
physiological rest
 Intensity – Most critical factor.
o Identify the target heart rate (220 – age X percent of maximal rate (70%)
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Type - the activity must be aerobic in nature and elevate the heart rate and maintain it at
that level for an extended time.
 Time- For minimal improvement to occur, an individual must participate in at least 20
minutes of continuous activity with the heart rate elevated to its working level
 Interval Training: involves intermittent activities
 (Example – running ten 120 yard sprints with a 45 second walking recovery period
between sprints)
 Consists of alternating periods of relatively intense work and active recovery
 Allows work at 80% or higher level for a short period of time, with active recovery at 3045% of max HR
 Allows for more sport specificity during workouts
 Training period = amount of time that continuous activity is actually being performed
 Recovery period = the time between training periods
 Set = a group of combined training and recovery periods
 Reps = the number of training and recovery periods per set
 Training time or distance = rate of distance of the training period
 Training-recovery ratio = a time ratio for training vs. recovery
 Speed Play – Type of cross country running originally referred to as “Fartlek”
 Similar to interval training, however specific pace and speed are not identified
 Terrain should vary – uphill, downhill, etc
 Put surges into a running workout, varying the length of the surges according to
individual purposes
 Must elevate heart rate to at least minimal training levels
 May be best utilized in the off-season for conditioning activities
 Equipment for Improving Cardiorespiratory Endurance
 Prices of equipment can range from $2 for a jump rope to $60,000 for certain isokinetic
devices, and $10,000 for a treadmill
The Importance of Muscular Strength, Endurance, and Power
o Muscular strength: Ability of a muscle to generate force against some resistance
o Muscular endurance: Ability to perform repetitive muscular contractions against some resistance for an
extended period of time.
o As muscular strength increases there tends to be a corresponding increase in muscular endurance
Techniques of Resistance Training
 For a muscle to improve in strength, it must be forced to work at a higher level than it is
accustomed to = Overload
o Functional Strength Training
 The kinetic chain is an integrated functional unit, composed of muscle, tendons, fascia, ligaments,
articular system and the neural system
 These structures function simultaneously to allow for structural and functional efficiency
 If one system is not working efficiently, the other systems are forced to adapt and compensate
 Functional movements occur in three planes and use eccentric, concentric and isometric
contractions
o Core Stability Training
 Core = muscles in the lumbar spine, the abdomen and muscles around the hip and pelvis
 A weak core is a fundamental problem of inefficient movements that lead to injury – strengthening
should be an important component of all comprehensive strengthening programs
o Isometric exercise
 Muscle contraction in which the length remains constant while tension develops toward maximal
force against immovable object
 Strength gains are specific to the joint angle used
 Disadvantage: tends to produce spike in systolic blood pressure (valsalva effect)
o Progressive resistance exercise
 Strengthen muscles through a contraction that overcomes some fixed resistance produced by
equipment (dumbbells, barbells, weight machines)
 Isotonic contractions: may be either concentric or eccentric
 It is essential to incorporate both contractions for greatest strength improvement
 One to two seconds for concentric portion
 Two to four seconds for eccentric portion
 Eccentric vs. Concentric
 Greater amounts of force against resistance are generated with eccentric than with
concentric contractions
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Eccentric contractions require a lower level of motor unit activity to achieve a certain
force
 Eccentric contractions are more resistant to fatigue
 Concentric – accelerate movements, Eccentric decelerate movements
 Free Weights versus Machine Weights
 Exercise machines are relatively safe to use compared to free weights
 Simple process to vary weights on machines
 Spotting for Free Weight Exercises
 A spotter had three functions: to protect the lifter from injury, to make recommendations
on proper lifting techniques and to help motivate the lifter (See Focus Box 4-2)
 Isotonic Training
 Isotonic exercise shortens and lengthens the muscle through a complete range of motion
– incorporates both eccentric and concentric contractions
 One to two seconds for concentric portion
 Two to four seconds for eccentric portion
 It is essential to incorporate both contractions for greatest strength improvement
 Progressive Resistive Exercise Techniques
 Overload is the basis of progressive resistance exercise. The amount of weight used and
the number of reps must be enough to make the muscle work at a higher intensity than it
is used to working
 Terminology
o Repetitions: The number of times a specific movement is repeated
o Repetition Max (RM): The maximum number of repetitions at a given weight
o Repetition Max (RM): The maximum number of repetitions at a given weight
o Repetition Max (RM): The maximum number of repetitions at a given weight
o One repetition maximum (1RM): The maximum amount of weight that can be
lifted one time
o Set: A particular number of repetitions
o Intensity: The amount of weight or resistance lifted
o Recovery period: The rest interval between sets
o Frequency: The number of times an exercise is done in one week
 Program Recommendations
o The amount of weight selected should be sufficient to allow 6-8 RM range
o If at least 3 sets of 6 reps cannot be completed the weight is too heavy and
should be reduced
o If can do more than 3 sets of 8 reps, the weight is too light and should be
increased
o Progression to heavier weights is determined by the ability to perform at least 8
RM in each of 3 sets
o Progress by increments of 10% from current weight being lifted – should still be
able to do at least 6 RM in each of 3 sets
o A particular muscle group should be exercised consistently every other day thus the frequency should be at least 3 times per week, but no more than 4 times
per week
o When training for strength – use heavier weights with a lower number of
repetitions
o When training for endurance – use lighter weights with a greater number of reps,
consisting of 3 sets of 10-15 reps
Isokinetic exercise:
 Involves muscle contraction in which the length of the muscle is changing while the contraction is
performed at a constant velocity
 Best used as a rehabilitative and diagnostic tool
Circuit training
 A series of exercise stations that consist of various combinations of weight training, flexibility,
calisthenics and brief aerobic exercises.
 Typical circuit involves eight to twelve stations
 Circuit often repeated 3 times
Calisthenic Strengthening exercises
 Free exercise - require the athlete to support the body or move the total body against the force of
gravity. (Push-ups)
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Plyometric exercise
 Specific exercises that encompass a rapid stretch of a muscle eccentrically, followed immediately
by a rapid concentric contraction of that muscle for the purpose of facilitating and developing a
forceful explosive movement over a short period of time.
 Emphasize the speed of the eccentric phase
 The rate of the stretch is more critical than the magnitude of the stretch
 Help develop eccentric control with dynamic movements
 Include hopping, bounding, depth jumps
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Strength Training for the Female
o Muscle hypertrophy is dependent upon the presence of testosterone
o Rapid initial gains in strength tend to plateau after 3-4 weeks, as muscle will not continue to hypertrophy to
any significant degree
o Females have a reduced strength-to–body-weight ratio due to their higher level of body fat, this ratio can be
improved through weight training by decreasing the % body fat in increasing lean weight
Strength Training in the Prepubescent and Adolescent
o If properly supervised, young athletes can improve strength, power, endurance, balance and proprioception
o Develop positive body image, improve sports performance and prevent injuries
o Prepubescent child can experience gains in levels of muscle strength without significant muscle
hypertrophy
o A program that utilizes calisthenic strengthening exercises with body weight resistance should be
incorporated
Improving and Maintaining Flexibility
o Flexibility is the ability to move a joint or series of joints smoothly and easily throughout a full range of
motion
o Restricted ROM will limit an athletes performance capabilities
o Lack of flexibility results in uncoordinated or awkward movements and predisposes athletes to muscle
strains
 Factors that limit flexibility
 Bony structure: May restrict the endpoint in the range
 Excessive fat: May act as a wedge between two lever arms restricting motion
 Skin: Inelastic scar tissue formed at site of an injury is incapable of stretching with joint
movement
 Muscles and their tendons
 Connective tissue: Ligaments and capsule are subject to contractures
 Neural tissue tightness: Pain causes muscle guarding to protect inflamed tissues and alters
normal movement patterns
o From acute compression
o Chronic repetitive microtrauma
o Muscle imbalances
o Joint dysfunction
o Poor posture
o Agonist versus Antagonist Muscles
 Agonist: The muscle that contracts to produce movement
 Antagonist: The muscle being stretched in response to contraction of the agonist muscle
o Active and Passive ROM
 Active range of motion: (Dynamic flexibility) the degree to which a joint can be moved by a
muscle contraction.
 Passive range of motion: (Static flexibility) the degree to which a joint may be passively moved to
the endpoints in the range of motion.
o Mechanisms for Improving Flexibility
 Neurophysiological Basis of Stretching
 Stretching techniques based on neurophysiological phenomenon involve the stretch reflex
 Muscle spindles: respond to stretch in tissues, causes muscle to reflexively contract, thus
resisting the stretch
 Golgi tendon organs: respond to change in length and increases in tension – cause reflex
relaxation of the antagonist muscle
 Autogenic inhibition: relaxation of the antagonist muscle during contractions
 Reciprocal inhibition: Contraction of the agonist muscle causes a reflex relaxation in the
antagonist muscle, allowing it to stretch and protects it from injury
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The Effects of Stretching on the Physical and Mechanical Properties of Muscle
 Neurophysiological mechanisms of both autogenic and reciprocal inhibition result in reflex
relaxation with subsequent lengthening of a muscle
 Mechanical properties of a muscle that physically allow lengthening to occur are dictated via
neural input
 Lengthening of a muscle via stretching allows for viscoelastic and plastic changes to occur in the
collagen and elastin fibers
 Viscoelastic changes allow slow deformation with imperfect recover are not permanent – plastic
changes occur with long periods of stretching
o Stretching Techniques
 Goal of flexibility program is to improve the range of motion at a given joint by altering the
extensibility of the musculotendinous units that produce movement at that joint
 Types of Stretching:
 Ballistic: Involves bouncing movements in which repetitive contractions of the agonist
muscle are used to produce quick stretches of the antagonist muscle
 Dynamic Stretching: Controlled stretching that is closely related to the types of activities
that athletes engage in and are therefore more functional in nature
 Static Stretching: Involves passively stretching a given antagonist muscle by placing it in
a maximal position of stretch and holding it there for an extended time
 PNF Stretching Techniques: Involve some combination of alternating contraction and
relaxation of both agonist and antagonist muscles. All use 10 second push phase
followed by a 10 second relax phase.
o Slow-reversal hold
o Contract-relax
o Hold-relax
 Comparing Techniques
 PNF stretching can produce dramatic increases in range of motion during one stretching
session – disadvantage is that one needs a partner
 Stretching Neural Structures
 Stretching Fascia
 The connective tissue that surrounds the musculotendinous unit can significantly limit
motion
 Stretching the Fascia can be done manually or using a firm foam roller
 The Pilates Method of Stretching
 Exercise technique devised by Joseph Pilates
 Conditioning program that improves muscle control, flexibility, coordination, strength
and tone
 Basic principle is to make people more aware of their bodies as single integrated units,
improve body alignment and breathing, and to increase efficiency of movement
 Yoga
 Originated in India approximately 6,000 years ago
 Basic philosophy is that most illness is related to poor mental attitudes, posture and diet
 Yoga can help individuals reduce stress and to cope with stress-induced behaviors like
overeating, hypertension and smoking
 Aims to unite the body and mind to reduce stress
 Uses deep breathing to help calm the body and also increases the production of
endorphins
o Measuring Range of Motion
 Goniometer – large protractor with measurements in degrees
 Inclinometer – more precise measuring instrument with high reliability that has most often been
used in research settings
Fitness Assessment
o Testing may be done in a pretest/posttest format to determine significant improvement from some baseline
measure
o Tests may be used to assess flexibility, muscular strength, endurance, power, cardiorespiratory endurance,
speed, balance or agility (see focus box 4-4)
Periodization in Conditioning
o Periodization is an approach to conditioning that brings about peak performance while reducing injuries
and overtraining in the athlete through training and conditioning programs that are carried out through
various seasons.
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Macrocycle: The complete training period (1 year for seasonal sports or 4 years for an Olympic
athlete)
Mesocycle: Each lasts for several weeks or even months and are divided into transition,
preparatory and competition periods
 Transition Period: Begins after the last competition and comprises the early part of the
off-season.
 Preparatory Period: Occurs primarily during the off-season when there are no upcoming
competitions.
o Hypertrophy/endurance phase: Training is at a low intensity with a high volume
of reps and may last several weeks to two months (Goal: develop a base of
endurance on which more intense training can occur)
o Strength phase: Occurs during off-season, the intensity and volume progress to
moderate levels – activities become more sport specific
o Power phase: Occurs in pre-season, intensity is high – at or near the level of
competition, volume is decreased so that full recovery is allowed between
sessions
 Competition Period: May last for only a week or less, with seasonal sports it may last
several months. Involves High intensity training at a low volume, progressing to light
training the day before a competition. (Goal: Make sure the athlete will be at peak levels
of fitness and performance on days of competition.
Cross Training: Involves substituting alternative activities that have some carryover value to a
particular sport
 Useful during both transition and early preparatory periods
 Adds variety to training regimens
 Not sport specific and should not be used during the preseason.