REACTIONS OF METHYL RADICALS WITH CU° NANOPARTICLES IN AQUEOUS SUSPENSIONS T. Zidki1, A. Elisseev1,2, H. Cohen1,3 and D. Meyerstein1,3 1 Department of Biological Chemistry, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel 40700 2 Chemistry Institute, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, Israel 3 Department of Chemistry, Ben-Gurion University, P.O. Box 653, Beer Sheva 84105, Israel tomerzi@ariel.ac.il Abstract Radical reactions at surfaces have been suggested to be involved in various chemical processes. It is of interest to study these processes in order to understand the mechanisms of homogeneous or heterogeneous catalytic reactions. It was shown that the powders of iron, chromium, manganese, cobalt, nickel, and zinc reduce the methyl radicals to produce methane, while copper powder oxidizes the methyl radicals to produce methanol. Another study has shown that gold and silver nanoparticles (NPs) catalyze the radicals' dimerization to produce ethane. It was decided to explore whether the behavior of copper NPs (the same chemical family of gold and silver) would behave similarly to that of gold and silver NPs and catalyze the dimerization of the methyl radicals or it will oxidize the radicals as the copper powder does. In this study the reaction between methyl radicals, ·CH3 and copper NPs was investigated. As it is essential to produce the NPs without any organic stabilizers (that might interfere with the experimental results) the Cu°-NPs synthesis was carried out via reduction of cupric ions with NaBH4 resulting in production of 3-4 nm relatively stable copper NPs. Radiolytic production of ·CH3 ((CH3)2SO solutions saturated with nitrous oxide) in the presence of Cu°-NPs produced methane as the main product, i.e., the radicals oxidize Cu°-NPs. It is proposed the observation that methane and not methanol is formed (oxidation of Cu°-NPs vs. reduction of copper powder) might be due to the difference in the redox potential of copper from that of silver and gold and of Cu°-NPs from the metallic copper. 259 Introduction Radical reactions at surfaces have been suggested to be involved in various chemical processes, e.g. heterogeneous radical induced catalytic processes; electrochemical processes; photochemical processes; environmental processes. Therefore it is of interest to study these processes in order to understand the mechanisms of homogeneous or heterogeneous catalytic reactions. For many years, the properties of metal nanoparticles (NPs) as catalysts have attracted the attention of many scientists. This is mainly due to the fact that their surface-to-volume ratio is considerably larger than that of the traditional catalysts. Metal NPs react with strong single electron reducing radicals in aqueous solutions.1-5 There are several plausible mechanisms for the reactions between these radicals and metal NPs. When the NP acts as a catalyst for the reduction of water the radical, R·, is oxidized and ROH is formed via the following mechanism1, 6, 7: R + (NP) R+ + (NP)- (1) Reaction (1) may be repeated n times to yield (NP)n-. (NP)n- + H3O+/H2O (NP)―H(n-1)- + H2O/OH- (2) Reaction (2) may be repeated m times to yield (NP) ―Hm(n-m)-. (NP)―Hm(n-m)- → (NP)―Hm-2(n-m)- + H2 R+ + H2O → ROH + H+ (3) (4) However the radical might also oxidize the NP via: R + (NP) → R- + (NP)+ R- + H3O+/H2O → RH + H2O/OH- (5) (6) If reaction (5) is repeated m times forming (NP)m+, it will be followed by: (NP)m+ → Mn+ + (NP)(m-n)+ 260 (7) Where M is the metal of which the NP is composed and n is the lowest common oxidation state of this metal. It should be noted that Mn+ can hydrolyze water to yield MlOk or MlOi(OH)j. There is another possibility, i.e., the catalytic formation of R2, or disproportionataion of ·R on the surface of the metal NP, i.e. a process that does not involve a redox process of the NP. R2 might be formed via one of two plausible mechanisms, which were proposed by Henglein:7 I. R + (NP) → R―(NP) R―(NP) + R → (NP) + R―R / R+ + R- (8) (9) II. When several radicals react with the NP followed by radical migration on the surface to produce R2 via dimerization: R―(NP) + (n-1) R → (NP)―Rn (NP)―Rn → (NP)―Rn-2 + R―R / R+ + R- (10) (11) When the methyl-radicals are formed, at a low dose rate in the presence of (CH3)2S=O, methane and ethane are formed via:8, 9 CH3 + (CH3)2S=O → CH4 + CH2S(O)CH3 k129 = 100 M-1s-1 CH3 + CH3 → C2H6 k138 = 1.6 x 109 M-1s-1 (12) )31( Previous studies show that powders of iron, chromium, manganese, cobalt, nickel, and zinc reduce the methyl radicals to produce methane, while copper powder oxidizes the methyl radicals to produce methanol.9, 10 Another study has shown that gold and silver nanoparticles (NPs) catalyze the radicals' dimerization to produce ethane.6 In addition, recent studies have also shown that the lifetime of the transients M°-NP-(CH3)n is long and that Pt°-NPs catalyze different reaction at different active sites on the NP.11, 12 It was decided to explore whether the behavior of copper NPs (the same chemical family of gold and silver) behave similarly to gold and silver NPs and catalyze the dimerization of the methyl radicals or oxidize the radicals as the copper powder does. 261 Cu°-NPs are not stable in aerated solutions and they have to be kept under an inert atmosphere.13 In this study the reaction between methyl radicals, ·CH3 and copper NPs was investigated. As it is essential to produce the NPs without any organic stabilizers (that might react with the methyl radicals) the Cu°-NPs synthesis was carried out via reduction of cupric ions with NaBH4 resulting in the formation of 3-4 nm relatively stable copper NPs. The reactions of these Cu°-NPs with methyl-radicals are reported. Experimental Materials. All chemicals were of A.R. grade and were used without further purification. The water used was deionized and was further purified by a Millipore Milli-Q setup with a final resistivity of > 10 MΩ cm. Instrumentation. UV-Vis measurements were carried out using an Agilent Diode Array spectrophotometer model 8453, which enables measurements in the range of 190–1100 nm and resolution of < 2 nm. TEM analyses were performed using a Tecnai F20 G2 high resolution TEM (FEI). The NP solutions were dried AGAR carbon films on 400 mesh nickel from BELGAR. Irradiations were performed in a 137Cs gamma source (Radiation Machinery Corporation Parsippany, NJ), which emits rays of 0.662 Mev. The dose rate delivered to the sample by the 137Cs source, as determined by the Fricke dosimetry, was 6.9 Gy min-1.14 The product gases were analyzed using a gas-chromatograph (Varian model 3800) equipped with flame ionization and thermal conductivity detectors connected in series. The gases were separated on a carbosieve B 1/8′′, 9′ stainless steel column using He as the carrier gas. The gaseous atmosphere was sampled (1 mL samples) after the irradiation, with gas-tight syringes (Precision Syringes, model A2). Cu°-NPs syntheses. The copper NPs (Cu°-NPs) suspensions are -irradiated and are thus in contact with the highly reactive hydroxyl and methyl radicals. Therefore the Cu°-NPs suspensions should be free from stabilizers (and in particular organic stabilizers) which can react with the radicals and affect the results. For that reason the Cu°-NPs suspensions were prepared according to the modified Creighton’s procedure,15 by reducing the cupric 262 ions with NaBH4 in aqueous solution. This procedure does not necessitate the additions of stabilizers since the resultant borate ions stabilize the NPs.16 The reduction was done by adding 10 mL of 82.5 mM NaBH4 at once to 110 mL CuSO4 (1.08 mM, pH 5.5 ± 0.2) under vigorous stirring. The almost colorless (very light blue) solution immediately turned brown and then slight color changes occurred. After ca. 30 min the color stabilized as reddish-brown and the pH was 10 ± 0.2. The resultant Cu°-NPs suspension was stable up to ca. 4 h. After this time gap, the suspensions turned blue (different and darker blue than the blue color of the cupric ions) and at later times, the copper precipitated as black particles. In order to prevent the color change and the precipitation, the suspensions were de-aerated with argon 30 min after preparation (copper particles precipitated when the reduction of Cu2+ was performed under argon atmosphere). All the irradiation experiments were done one day after preparation to ensure full decomposition of the excessive NaBH4. In order to study the reaction of between the radicals and oxidized NPs, the Arsaturated Cu°-NPs suspension was opened to the atmosphere one day after preparation for 30 min and then de-aerated using N2O. The color of this suspension changed from reddish-brown to greenish-blue. This suspension is marked as ox-Cu°-NPs. Irradiation. 6 mL of the Cu°-NPs and ox-Cu°-NPs suspensions (at the original concentration or diluted with water) containing 0.1 M (CH3)2S=O were transferred to small sealable glass bulbs (15 mL). These bulbs were sealed with rubber septa and were deaerated by bubbling N2O for 15 min. The blank solution was an aqueous solution of borate (the reduction byproduct) containing 0.1 M(CH3)2S=O without the NPs. These bulbs were irradiated using the -source. After the irradiation, the gas phase was analyzed using the GC. The results from the GC analysis (Tables 2-3) are converted to G-value which is defined as the number of molecules of each product per 100 eV of radiation absorbed by the solution. Results and Discussion Cu°-NPs characterization. The UV-Vis spectrum of the Cu°NPs and ox-Cu°-NPs are shown in Fig. 1. The spectrum in Fig. 1a shows a typical plasmon band at 565± 2 nm,17 which indicates 263 Cu°-NPs formation.17 Furthermore, this spectrum is stable for at least one day, thus the Cu°-NPs are stable during that period of time. This time gap is required for NaBH4 to decompose before the suspension is irradiated and the reaction between the Cu°-NPs and the radicals takes place. Fig. 1b shows the spectrum of the oxidized Cu°-NPs which differs from Fig. 1a due to the oxidation of the particles and the corresponding color change. The plasmon peak is red-shifted to 660 ± 10 nm. According to Mie theory,18 this shift can be due to larger aggregates of the copper or due to less negative charge on the NPs as a result of the oxidation. Fig. 1. UV-Vis spectrum of. a) Cu°-NPs, the spectrum taken immediately after preparation; b) ox-Cu°-NPs spectrum taken after exposure of 30 min air, one day after preparation. Fig. 2 shows a high resolution TEM micrograph of the synthesized Cu°-NPs. It can be seen that the Cu°-NPs are small, 3- 264 4 nm. From the measured size of the NPs, one can calculate their molar concentration, [Cu°-NPs], using Equations (14)-(15): n 3 M NP 4RNP N A m Atom 3 MW [ NP] C n (14) (15) Where: n is the number of metal atoms in a NP; M NP is the mass of the NP; mAtom is the mass of a Cu atom; RNP is the average metal NPs’ radius; ρ is the density of the metal, and equals 8.96 g cm-3;19 NA is Avogadro's number; MW is the molar weight of the Cu; C is the molar concentration of the cupric ion precursor and equals 0.99 mM. The calculated average number of Cu atoms in one particle is n = 1900 Cu atoms/NP. From this number, the [Cu°-NPs] was calculated to be 5.2x10-7 M. The copper NPs have fringes and twin-lines which indicate the poly-crystalline structure of the NPs. The Cu°-NPs are spherical and grow as individual particles. Fig. 2. HR-TEM micrograph of freshly prepared Ar-saturated Cu°-NPs. The Cu°-NPs suspensions have to be N2O-saturated prior to the -irradiation in order to convert the hydrated electrons into 265 hydroxyl radicals, ∙OH.20 When the Cu°-NPs suspensions are saturated with N2O, slow color changes are observed (within two days): the reddish-brown color changes to greenish-blue. In order to explore the effect of N2O on the particles, TEM micrographs were taken as well as Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) and Selected Area Diffraction (SAD) analyses. Fig. 2 and 3 compare the morphology between freshly prepared Cu°-NPs (Fig. 2), N2Osaturated suspension of Cu°-NPs (Fig. 3a) and ox-Cu°-NPs (Fig. 3b). a b Oxide Layer Fig. 3. TEM micrographs. a) N2O-saturated suspension of Cu°-NPs– brown suspension; b) ox-Cu°-NPs - blue suspension. The results point out that the N2O affects the NPs morphology. The particles in Fig. 3a are partially aggregated and are covered with a thin white layer which indicates oxidation of the copper. When this solution is oxidized by air (oxygen) its color changes to greenish-blue and larger aggregates are produced with a significantly thicker oxide-layer (white layer and white rectangles marked with arrows in Fig. 3b). The EDS (Table 1) and SAD (fig. 5) analyses support the copper-oxidation assumption. The three suspensions (freshly prepared Cu°-NPs, N2Osaturated Cu°-NPs for several hours and ox-Cu°-NPs) were analyzed using the EDS and SAD techniques, Fig. 5. The EDS results in Table 1 point out that the Cu°-NPs are indeed oxidized upon exposure to N2O and oxygen as the atomic % of oxygen increases under these exposures. The atomic % of oxygen 266 increases from 19.4 to 24.4 % for Cu°-NPs and N2O-saturated Cu°-NPs, respectively and to 38.7 % for ox-Cu°-NPs. Also, Table 1 shows the ratios between Cu° atoms and oxidized Cu atoms (in CuO or in Cu2O) from the data collected from the areas marked in Fig. 4. These results indicate that a significant portion of the copper atoms on the particles surfaces are oxidized upon exposure to mild oxidants such as N2O and atmospheric air. It should be pointed out that the oxidation of the Cu°-NPs results in a color change of the suspension and, at longer periods, precipitation of the particles. This is in contrast to the finding that Cu°-NPs are dissolved upon oxidation with air.21 In the latter case, a ligand was present that creates a soluble copper complex, thus shifting the redox potential of the copper, and favors its dissolution. Table 1. Numeric data from EDS analyses of freshly prepared Arsaturated Cu°-NPs, N2O-saturated suspension of Cu°-NPs and ox-Cu°NPs. Freshly prepared Ar-saturated Cu°-NPs – brown suspension Element Weight % Atomic % O(K) 5.8 19.4 Cu(K) 92.9 79.0 Cu:O Cu:O (CuO)* Cu:O (Cu2O)** 4:1 3:1 2:1 N2O-saturated suspension of Cu°-NPs – brown suspension O(K) 7.5 24.4 Cu(K) 92.5 75.6 3:1 2:1 1:1 ox-Cu°-NPs – blue suspension All of Cu are 3:2 1:2 oxidized Cu(K) 86.3 61.3 as Cu2O * The theoretical ratio between Cu° atoms and oxidized Cu atoms in CuO. ** The theoretical ratio between Cu° atoms and oxidized Cu atoms in Cu2O. O(K) 13.7 38.7 267 Fig. 4. TEM micrographs, the marked areas represent the regions from which the EDS analyses were taken. a) freshly prepared Arsaturated Cu°-NPs; b) N2O-saturated suspension of Cu°-NPs; c) ox-Cu°-NPs. In order to find which copper oxide species is in the suspension, SAD analyses were performed, Fig. 5. The SAD analysis provides a tool to distinguish between crystal structures. Crystal structures have data-cards in the database of the International Centre for Diffraction Data (ICDD). The conclusions from Fig. 5 are that the d-spacing of freshly prepared Ar-saturated Cu°-NPs, N2O-saturated suspension of Cu°-NPs and ox-Cu°-NPs fit to copper,22 CuO23 and Cu2O,24 respectively. Clearly, these are the dominant structures observed and probably on all the NPs mixtures of the oxides/hydroxides are present. 268 Fig. 5. SAD analyses of: a) freshly prepared Ar-saturated Cu°-NPs; b) N2O-saturated suspension of Cu°-NPs; c) ox-Cu°-NPs. Stable copper NPs were synthesized using sodium borohydride without adding any stabilizer. The environment in which the Cu°-NPs are synthesized or kept is crucial for stabilization. On one hand the synthesis has to be performed under air (the NPs precipitated when the synthesis is performed under Ar) while on the other hand the NPs suspensions have to be kept under Ar. It is suggested that the formation of a partial oxide layer (CuO or Cu2O) is important for the stabilization of the Cu°-NPs. The oxide layer probably prevents the aggregation of the copper NPs to big aggregates that are thermodynamically more stable. 269 However, when the NPs are fully-oxidized the stabilization of the suspension decreases resulting in precipitation. Irradiation of Cu°-NPs: N2O-saturated Cu°-NPs suspensions containing (CH3)2S=O were irradiated in the -source, within one hour of N2O-saturation, with a total dose of 69 and 207 Gy. Under these conditions, in the absence of the NPs, methane and ethane are formed via reactions (12) & (13). Table 2 summarizes the irradiation results. It can be seen that the total yields of carbonaceous materials (G-value) is 6 within the error-limit (15%), which indicates that methane and ethane are the only significant products, so one can assume that no other product is formed. Table 2. GC analysis of the gases formed by the -irradiation of the Cu°NPs suspensions. 69 2.1 1.5 5.1 G(methane)/ G(ethane) 1.4 69 4.0 1.2 6.4 3.3 69 2.9 1.5 5.9 1.9 207 2.3 1.6 5.5 1.4 207 4.2 1.1 6.4 3.8 Description* Dose, Gy G(methane) G(ethane) G(total)† Blank‡ ¥ Cu°-NPs Cu°-NPs/2 Blank ¥ Cu°-NPs § Cu°-NPs/2§ 207 2.2 1.7 5.6 1.3 The results’ error-limit is ± 15%. This error-limit is high as there are several sources for error, e.g.: homogeneity of the -source, GC analysis error, gas phase volume, etc. The results are averages of at least three runs of each experiment. * All the solutions contained 0.1 M (CH3)2S=O and were N2O-saturated, pH 10. † G(total) = G(CH4) + 2G(C2H6). ‡ A NaBH4 solution that was kept overnight so that all the BH4decomposed to yield borate. ¥ [Cu°-NPs] = 5.2x10-7 M § [Cu°-NPs]/2 – two times diluted Cu°-NPs suspension – 2.6x10-7 M. The results presented in Table 2 clearly point out that the Cu°-NPs react with the methyl radicals. As a result of this reaction 270 the CH4 yield increases whereas the C2H6 yield decreases. The proposed mechanism for methane formation involves two steps: (Cu°-NP) + nCH3. (Cu°-NP)-(CH3)n (16) followed by: (Cu°-NP)-(CH3)n+mH2O(Cu°-NP)m+-(CH3)n-m+mCH4+mOH- (17) The (Cu°-NP)m+─(CH3)n-m probably reacts with water to form more oxides/hydroxides on the surface of the NP. This mechanism includes two major stages: in the first stage methyl radicals bind to the partially oxidized Cu°-NP to yield the transient (Cu°-NP)-(CH3)n, an analogous reaction was reported for the reaction of methyl radicals with other M°-NPs.6, 10-12 In the second stage the M°-C bonds heterolyse, in contrast to observations for other (M°-NP)-(CH3)n.6, 10-12 The ratio G(methane)/G(ethane) increases when the [Cu°NP] increases, see Table 2. The results indicate that most of the methane is produced via reactions (16) & (17) and that reaction (12) almost does not contribute to the methane yield, clearly in the presence of the Cu°-NPs the yield of methane via reaction (12) is (CH4) < 1. This means that in the presence of the Cu°-NPs the steady-state concentration of ∙CH3 is lower than half the steadystate concentration in the blank solutions. Therefore, assuming that all the ethane is formed via reaction (13), G(C2H6) should decreases by a factor of 4. As G(C2H6) decreases only by ca. 30%, one has to conclude that most of the ethane is formed at the surface of the NPs. The ethane formation mechanism is illustrated in Scheme 1: Scheme 1. The proposed mechanism of ethane formation on the surface of Cu°-NPs. 271 As the reaction of methyl radicals with ox-Cu°-NPs yields ethane, see below, it is tempting to propose that the ethane is formed on the oxidized sites of the partially oxidized Cu°-NPs. An oxidized site may contain CuO, Cu2O or both. However, one cannot rule out the option that the surface of the Cu°-NPs contains different non-oxidized sites and that some of them catalyze the ethane formation as Ag°-NPs and Au°-NPs do.6, 10 Since the Cu°NPs are poly-crystalline (Fig. 2), the methyl radicals might react differently on each site (crystal structure) yielding different products. This was also reported for the reaction of ∙CH3 radicals with Pt°-NPs that yields CH4, C2H4 and C2H6.11 Copper powder oxidize methyl radicals to produce methanol.9 The fact that Cu°-NPs reduce the radicals is attributed to the redox properties of the copper that are size-dependent, i.e. to the fact that Cu°-NPs are stronger reducing agents than bulk copper metal. The CH3 has sufficient potential to oxidize copper and to reduce water. Therefore, the reaction mechanism is determined by the activation energy of the different reactions. Irradiation of ox-Cu°-NPs: The Ar-saturated synthetized Cu°-NPs were exposed to the atmosphere one day after preparation for 30 min and then were de-aerated with N2O. The color of these suspensions changed to greenish-blue as a result of oxidation of the copper. The irradiation procedure was repeated using the same method of the Cu°-NPs. The irradiation results are summarized in Table 3. The results presented in Table 3 clearly demonstrate that the fully oxidized ox-Cu°-NPs (greenish-blue suspension) catalyze the formation of ethane: the ratio G(methane)/G(ethane) decreases, i.e. more ethane is produced while the methane yield is decreased considerably. The suggested mechanism of the ethane formation is analogous to that outlined in Scheme 1. This reaction is similar to the reaction of TiO2-NPs with ∙CH3.25 Thus, the properties of oxCu°-NPs resemble the properties of the TiO2-NPs. As the copper oxide is an insulator, the methyl radicals cannot oxidize the copper and the fate of the radicals can only lead to dimerization yielding ethane. 272 Table 3: GC analysis of the gases formed by the -irradiation of the oxCu°-NPs. 69 2.4 1.6 5.6 G(methane)/ G(ethane) 1.5 Ox-Cu°-NPs 69 0.49 2.5 5.49 0.20 Blank 207 2.6 1.7 6.0 1.5 Description* Dose, Gy G(methane) G(ethane) G(total)† Blank‡ Ox-Cu°-NPs 207 0.46 2.4 5.26 0.19 The results’ error-limit is ± 15%. This error-limit is high as there are several sources for error, e.g.: homogeneity of the -source, GC analysis error, gas phase volume, etc. The results are averages of at least three runs of each experiment. * All of the solutions contained 0.1 M (CH3)2S=O and were N2Osaturated, pH 10. † G(total) = G(CH4) + 2G(C2H6). ‡ A NaBH4 solution that was kept overnight so that all the BH 4decomposed to yield borate. Concluding Remarks 1. Stable copper NPs were synthesized using sodium borohydride without adding any stabilizer. 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