Chapter 7
Egypt: the Endurance of Civilization
The Habit of Civilization
Pages 113-115
Pattern of History
Pages 115-118
Decline and Summary
Pages 119-120
New Kingdom Pharaohs and Leadership
Page 121
Works Consulted
Page 123
Essential concept: How does environment shape a civilization? What are the
benefits of continuity? What are the pitfalls of continuity?
Ancient Egyptian Timeline
5000 BC
First evidence of people settling along the Nile Delta
4400 - 4000 BC
People practiced agriculture and domesticated sheep and goats,
-- known for pottery
4000 - 3500 BC
Amratian Society of Upper Egypt - first signs of hierarchical
civilization
3200 BC
Hieroglyphics developed
3110 - 2884 BC
Menes joined Upper and Lower Egypt into one kingdom with
the capitol at Memphis
3000 BC-2125
Old Kingdom Irrigation increased farmland, people worship
the sun; age of pyramids
(2125-1550)
Middle Kingdom Period of chaos and change of capitals
1550-1069
New Kingdom: Era of Thutmose, Hatshepsut, Akhenaton,
Tutankhamen and Ramses
712-657)
Assyrians invasion.
(525-404)
The Persian Conquest
The Persians invaded and ruled Egypt. They were pushed out
in 404 B. C.
343 - 342 BC
Artaxerxes I of Persia retakes Egypt
332 BC
Alexander the Great invades Egypt
331 BC
Alexandria is founded
Egypt: The Habit of Civilization
Gift of the
Nile
Geography
In the valley of the Nile, the ancient Egyptians
created one of the earliest, most magnificent and
long-lasting of the world’s civilizations. “The
Egyptian Nile “said the great Arab traveler Ibn
Battuta, “surpasses all the rivers of the world in
sweetness of taste, in length of course and utility.
No other river can show such a continuous series
of towns and villages along its banks, nor a basin
so intensively cultivated.” The civilization of
Egypt, like those of Mesopotamia, India, and
China, drew its life from a river. Like the Ganges
in India, the Nile was worshipped as a divine
force itself, as the giver of life. Egypt has been
called, the Gift of the Nile.
This then was a river like no other; running for
six hundred miles between dunes and cliffs, the narrow ribbon of blue water and green
fields on average only six mile wide. Egypt’s geography shaped the very character if its
civilization and its people. Where the spirit of Iraq was pessimistic, here when the Nile
flooded each year, as the ancients said, “the fields laugh, men’s faces light up and God
rejoices in his heart.” From the life-renewing soil left by the inundation, the Egyptians
drew a cheerful confidence in humanity, in the permanence and stability of things. In
striking contrast to Mesopotamia, theirs was always an optimistic civilization.
Strong natural frontiers; a rich agricultural soil produced by the natural flooding;
tremendous mineral resources in stone and precious metals generated a magical selfconfidence and a unique cultural purity of over three thousand years of Egyptian history.
Farming villages appear in the flood plain in the sixth millennium BC, cultivating wheat
and barley and domesticating sheep and goats. During the next two millennia, there was a
gradual formation of several tiny kingdoms along the valley, and in the Delta, the two
regions which still present the fundamental divide in Egyptian history, culture and
geography. After 4000BC, there was a substantial increase in population and size of the
settlements; developed crafts and technological skills are in evidence, working in stone,
bronze, copper, and slate. The first small towns, walled in mudbrick, appear by 3500BC,
with the rich tombs of local dynasties.
Pre-Dynastic
Egypt
Beginning just before the Predynastic period, Egyptian culture was already beginning to
resemble greatly the Pharaonic ages that would soon come after, and rapidly at that. In a
transition period of a thousand years (about which little is still known), nearly all the
archetypal characteristics appeared, and beginning in 5500 BC we find evidence of
organized, permanent settlements focused around agriculture. Hunting was no longer a
major support for existence now that the Egyptian diet was made up of domesticated cattle,
sheep, pigs and goats, as well as cereal grains such as wheat and barley. Artifacts of stone
were supplemented by those of metal, and the crafts of basketry, pottery, weaving, and the
tanning of animal hides became part of the daily life. The transition from primitive
nomadic tribes to traditional civilization was nearly complete.
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The Chalcolithic period, also called the "Primitive" Predynastic, marks the beginning of the
true Pre-dynastic cultures both in the north and in the south. The southern cultures,
particularly that of the Badarian, were almost completely agrarian (farmers), but their
northern counterparts, such as the Faiyum who were oasis dwellers, still relied on hunting
and fishing for the majority of their diet. Predictably, the various craftworks developed
along further lines at a rapid pace. Stoneworking, particularly that involved in the making
of blades and points, reached a level almost that of the Old Kingdom industries that would
follow. Furniture too, was a major object of creation; again, many artifacts already
resembling what would come. Objects began to be made not only with a function, but also
with an aesthetic value. Pottery was painted and decorated, particularly the black-topped
clay pots and vases that this era is noted for; bone and ivory combs, figurines, and
tableware, are found in great numbers, as is jewelry of all types and materials. It would
seem that while the rest of the world at large was still in the darkness of primitivism, the
Pre=dynastic Egyptians were already creating a world of beauty.
Uniting
Egypt
No time of the Pre-dynastic offers as many questions as the period of unification of
southern and northern Egypt. Exactly who conquered whom is the first. Many sources point
to the event as the victory of the south over the north, yet the resulting social system
resembles more that of the north than the south.
Exactly who the first king of unified Egypt is also difficult to say, or even when the actual
unification occurred. The most powerful piece of data on this event is the Narmer Palette, a
triangular piece of black basalt depicting a king whose name is given as Nar-Mer in the
hieroglyphs. On the obverse, he is shown wearing the white crown of the south and holding
a mace about to crush the head of a northern foe, and on the reverse, the same figure is
shown wearing the red crown of the north while a bull (a symbol of the pharaoh's power)
rages below him, smashing the walls of a city and trampling yet another foe. Another
artifact, the "Scorpion" Macehead, depicts a similar figure, only this time the name is given
by the pictogram of a scorpion. This king-figure is called in many documents alternatively
Narmer, or Aha, and if the historian Eratosthenes is to be believed, this is the legendary
King Meni, or Menes. Whether "King Scorpion" is the same person as Narmer is a bit of
contention, but the two are widely accepted to be the same. If these two artifacts, and others
like them from the same period, do in fact depict this as the first king of unified Egypt, then
the date for the Unification can be placed sometime between 3150 and 3110 BC.
Kingship
and
Divinity
114
Out of prehistoric tribal struggles, the “great tradition” emerged:
the first true state in the world. The ideological basis of
prehistoric kingship, its symbols and myths, proved uniquely longlasting, indeed it lay at the heart of Egyptian civilization. The
temple was a symbolic representation of the original mound of
creation, with the simple reed shrine surrounding the perch on
which the hawk had landed. A whole theory of society was bound
up with this myth. For the temple was not only a depiction of the
first place, but of the first time, the time when the pattern of a
stable society was handed down to humankind; a pattern to be
maintained by kingship, law, religion, and ritual, and which it was
believed, would suffice for eternity as long as the rituals were correctly performed. The
universe and civil society were conceived of as static. Progress, change, new questions,
new answers were simply not needed. And they would not be needed for three millennia
Mainstays And
Themes
The Pyramid
Age
So in the pre-dynastic period, the mainstays of later Egypt: efficient farming, metalworking, centrally organized irrigation, pottery, stone-working, ceremonial and
monumental architecture, elaborate burials, and long-distance trade were all
established. For the Egyptians then, divine kingship was the guarantee of a stable
cosmos. And so the key themes of Egyptian history were laid down very early;
centralized power, royal rituals, and the cult of the dead intertwined to form the
ideology of the world’s first state.
Where the narrow Nile valley meets
the green expanse of the Delta, close
by today’s capital of Cairo, Menes
built his royal city Memphis. Slightly
to the south of Memphis, at Saqqara
the mudbrick architecture of Abydos
was turned into stone: the world’s
first large-scale stone architecture.
The necropolis of Saqqara extends
for miles. Overshadowing the whole
area was a new innovation, a gigantic stepped tomb, 200 feet high: the first of the
pyramids. This idea of Zoser and his architect Imhotep ( who was later deified for
his accomplishments) caught on in an extraordinary fashion. In a handful of
generations around 2500Bc, a series of gifted Kings Senefru, Khufu, Khafre built
bigger and bigger as each seemed to try to outdo his predecessor, created the greatest
series of funeral monuments the world has ever seen. Djedefre, son of Khufu, is
currently credited with the construction of the sphinx.
Primary
Source
There are many myths surrounding the building of the pyramids. In the Hollywood
biblical epic version, slave gangs were whipped along by tyrannical masters. But
though slavery existed in ancient Egypt, this was not a slave society.
When the Greek historian Herodotus visited Egypt
in the fifth century B.C., he was told by his guides
that 100,000 workers had labored for 20 years to
build Khufu's pyramid. Even 20,000 workers, a
number closer to recent estimates, is comparable
to the populations of large cities in the Near East
during the third millennium B.C. From
hieroglyphic inscriptions and graffiti we infer that
skilled builders and craftsmen probably worked
year round at the pyramid construction site.
Peasant farmers from the surrounding villages and
provinces rotated in and out of a labor force
organized into competing gangs with names such as "friends of Khufu" and"
Drunkards of Menkaure". The pyramid projects must have been a tremendous
socializing force in the early Egyptian kingdom-young conscripts from hamlets and
villages far and wide departing for Giza where they entered their respective gangs.
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Legitmation
of authority
Old Kingdom
An enormous support system must have existed at Giza for at least 67 years, the
combined minimum lengths of Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure's reigns. such support
would have included production facilities for food, ceramics and building materials
(gypsum mortar, stone, wood and metal tools); storage facilities for food, fuel and
other supplies, housing for workmen, their families and priests responsible for services
in pyramid
Nine temples that remained in use long after the
main building phase was completed, and a
cemetery for workers who died in the employ of
the royal necropolis. The pyramid builders were
not slaves but peasants conscripted on a rotating
part-time basis, working under the supervision of
skilled artisans and craftsmen who not only built
the pyramid complexes for the kings and nobility,
but also designed and constructed their own,
more modest tombs.
Dr. Zahi Hawass , Former Minister of Antiquities, Egypt
The Egyptian word for pyramid means ‘a place of ascension’. All civilizations have
sought validation for their power over the masses by creating great public symbols.
And what more awe-inspiring demonstration could there by of the real power of kings
who could command such memorials? Scholars now believe that in the Egyptian
pyramid the dead King becomes a manifestation of the Sun God himself. In the step
pyramid at Saqqara one can see the transitional stage in the idea: a stair case on which
the king’s spirit could ascend to heaven and then go back to his tomb. The true
pyramid is simply an extension of this idea. It is both an image of the rays of the Sun
God coming down to ear and a celestial ramp for the ascension of the soul: a typical
piece of Egyptian imagination, in which an immaterial concept is represented in a
material form. On winter days in Giza, it is often possible to see the sun breaking
through the clouds and shining down at the same angle as the pyramids: a stairway to
heaven, formed by the rays on which the king, ‘nimble and wise, could ascend to the
indestructible stars.’
Pattern of History
For much of its ancient history Egypt remained extraordinarily stable for long
periods as typified in the unchanging style of
its art. The Old Kingdom (c2700-2100 BC)
whose zenith was the Pyramid age, saw a big
increase in population. This placed great
reliance on maximizing the use of the land
flooded and fertilized each year by the
inundations. Around 2200-2100 BC, the same
prolonged dry period which caused such
problems for the Ur III kings in Mesopotamia,
brought a series of consistently low floods and
precipitated half a century of famine.
However, during Pepi II's reign, we find
increasing evidence of the power and wealth of
high officials in Egypt, with decentralization of
control away from the capital, Memphis.
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These nobles built huge, elaborate tombs at Akhmin, Abydos, Edfu and Elephantine, and it is
clear that their wealth enhanced their status to the detriment of the king's. Because the
positions of these officials was now hereditary, they now owned considerable land which was
passed from father to son. Therefore, their allegiance and loyalty to the throne became very
casual as their wealth gave them independence from the king. Administration of the country
became difficult and so it was Pepi II who divided the position of vizier so that now there was
a vizier of Upper Egypt and another of Lower Egypt. Yet the power of these local rulers
continued to flourish as the king grew ever older, and probably less of an able ruler.
Middle
Kingdom
During the interregnum after the Old Kingdom, a
small independent kingdom had grown up around the
town of Thebes in Upper Egypt. The Theban
Mentuhotep II restored the unity of the two lands in
2130 BC, and the Theban tradition tended to view
him as a second founder of a united Egypt
comparable to Menes. Thebes itself became the
southern ‘capital’ which it remains today. Through
both the Middle Kingdom (1991-1786 BC) and the
New Kingdom (1587-1085 BC), the once small
country town of Thebes was adorned with a series of
gigantic shrines and a series of huge mortuary
temples.
There is no evidence in this long period that people
seriously considered alternative forms of government to
that of rule by a diving king: indeed evidence for revolts
against the Pharaonic state is virtually non-existent. In
modern terms, theirs was a provider state, providing a basic
standard of living to its entire people through control of the
resources of the Nile In return, enormous surpluses could
be spent by the rulers on tombs, temples, and palaces.
Through these great buildings the state expressed its
ideologies of power: its belief in the indivisibility of divine
and earthly rule, and in the need of a stable cosmos. Such
ideas may have been essential requirements for the creation
of civilization initially.
Economics
Without a system of money at the local level, Egypt needed an elaborate system of
redistribution of surpluses to sustain the huge elite and the entire service sector. It was
patriarchal and to a degree authoritarian; but it is not far from many modern Near Eastern
countries today. But the arbitrariness had to be matched by responsibility. God, as king, had
consented to guide the nation. Societies had a pledge that the unpredictable forces of nature
would be well disposed and bring prosperity and peace, which generally they did, for three
thousand years. Nor did the Egyptian view lack ethical content, for truth and justice, known as
Ma’at, were ‘what the gods live by’ and were an essential element in the established order. As
the great Egyptologist Henri Frankfort said, “Pharaoh was not in our sense a tyrant, nor was his
service slavery”.
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Ma’at
Egyptians believed that the universe was above everything
else an ordered and rational place. It functioned with
predictability and regularity; the cycles of the universe
always remained constant; in the moral sphere, purity was
rewarded and sin was punished. Both morally and
physically, the universe was in perfect balance. The
Egyptian word for this balance was the word for "truth,"
ma'at; this is perhaps the single most important aspect of
Egyptian culture. Ma’at was the philosophy of justice,
law, and ethics, concepts that the ancient Egyptians
believed to be the foundation of universal order, truth, and
harmony. Personified as a goddess, Ma’at is depicted as a
woman wearing an ostrich feather on her head, a symbol
of the principles she represents. Controlling the movement
of the stars and the seasonal flooding of the Nile River, Ma’at also dictated codes of tradition
and customs. Ma’at was central to funerary practices in which the heart of the deceased,
considered the center of intellect and memory, was weighed against a feather and judged
worthy of eternal life
Role of
Pharaoh
The pharaoh was the living representation of Ma’at in which Egypt held the position of
highest regard in the world. The pharaoh was not simply a priest-king. He was the upholder of
the universal order. As long as the pharaoh and the people honored the gods and obeyed the
law set down for them, Ma’at would be in balance and all would be well. But should the
pharaoh fail, not only the people but the whole world would suffer, for Ma’at formed the basis
of all things.
Thus, the pharaoh was the center of order and controlled every facet of Egyptian life. Deviation
from the tenets of ma’at could prove disastrous for the pharaoh whose responsibility it was to
maintain order throughout the kingdom. In line with the utopian order of Ma’at, the pharaoh
was always depicted as a perfectly handsome, athletic male – regardless of his appearance in
real life. It was also important that the pharaoh was seen as a powerful and invincible leader
and so he was often depicted smiting the enemy. Even those who did not set foot on the
battlefield were keen to exploit this symbolism.
The mediator between humans and gods was the king. The crowning of a new king
transformed him into a living god;
What is the king of Upper Egypt?
What is the king of Lower Egypt?
It is a god by whose guidance you live
the Father and the Mother of all humans,
Alone by himself
The one who is unique
(Rekhmire)
The most important task for the king was to serve the gods
and by that making it possible to maintain order and
structure in society. He is seen as the son of several gods,
not just one; Ramesses III as the son of Amon, Atum,
Ptah, Shu, Thoth, Osiris, Horus and others.
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He becomes in fact their incarnation on earth. By observing and obeying the will of the
gods he upholds Ma´at, the principle of order, justice and harmony, which is necessary
for existence to continue. Here the daily Temple Cult plays an important part. As the
living king was a Horus, when he died, his successor became the new living image of
Horus and the dead king became Osiris, Horus' father. The cyclic renewal of the
creation was thus ensured by the constantly renewing monarchy. As the heir of Osiris,
Horus also represents all that is just and right.
Myth and
Authority
Second
Intermediate
period
After Osiris was murdered by his brother Seth, his heritage was claimed by Seth, who
tried to cast aside Osiris' legal heir. With the help of his mother Isis, Horus demands
justice and attacks his uncle. When Horus emerges victoriously from his battles with
Seth, Osiris' heritage is given to him, ending the chaos and uncertainty of Seth's rule.
Because of his battles against injustice, Horus is also seen as a protector-god, a god who
attacks and destroys evil where- and whenever he can. As the god of the heavens, he is
often represented as a falcon or as a man with the head of a falcon. As such, he is the
protector of the heaven and of the sun god Re. The Egyptian, then believed that he or
she understood how the universe operated; all phenomena could be explained by an
appeal to this understanding of the rationality of the universe.
The Middle Kingdom fell because of the weakness of its later kings, which lead to
Egypt being invaded by an Asiatic, desert people called the Hyksos. These invaders
made themselves kings and held the country for more than two centuries. The word
Hyksos goes back to an Egyptian phrase meaning "ruler of foreign lands". The Hyksos,
sometimes referred to as the Shepherd Kings or Desert Princes, sacked the old capital of
Memphis and built their capital at Avaris, in the Delta. The dynasty consisted of five
possibly six kings, the best-known being Apepi I, who reigned for up to 40 years.
Looking back over what the contemporary sources have revealed concerning the
humiliating Hyksos occupation we find truth and falsity in almost equal measure.
R. Weill was the first to insist on the distortion due to a type of literary fiction which
became an established convention of Egyptian historical writing. A period of desolation
and anarchy is painted in exaggeratedly lurid colors, usually for the glorification of a
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monarch to whom the salvation of the country is ascribed. It is not to be believed that a
mighty host of Asiatic invaders descended upon the Delta like a whirlwind and, occupying
Memphis, inflicted upon the natives every kind of cruelty. The rare remains of the Hyksos
kings point rather to an earnest endeavor to conciliate the inhabitants and to ape the
attributes and the trappings of the weak Pharaohs whom they disodged.
The Hyksos episode was not without effecting certain changes in the material civilization of
Egypt. Their rule brought many technical innovations to Egypt, from bronze working,
pottery and looms to new musical instruments and musical styles. New breeds of animals
and crops were introduced. But the most important changes was in the area of warfare;
composite bows, new types of daggers and scimitars, and above all the horse and chariot. In
many ways the Hyksos modernized Egypt, and ultimately, Egypt was to benefit from their
rule.
New Kingdom
The 18th Dynasty began a period of unprecedented success in international affairs for Egypt.
There was a succession of extraordinary and able kings and queens who laid the
foundations of a strong Egypt and bequeathed a prosperous economy to the kings of the
19th dynasty. There was Ahmose who expelled the Hyksos, followed by Thutmose I's
conquest in the Near East and Africa. Queen Hatshepsut and Thutmose III who made Egypt
into an ancient super power. The magnificent Amenhotep III, who began an artistic
revolution. Akhenaton and Nefertiti who began a religious revolution - the concept of one
god. Finally there was Tutankhamen who is so famous in our modern age.
In the 19th dynasty, Seti I's reign looked for its model to the mid-18th dynasty and was a
time of considerable prosperity. He restored countless monuments. His temple at Abydos
exhibits some of the finest carved wall reliefs.
His son Rameses II is the major
figure of the dynasty. Around this
time the Hittites had become a
dominant Asiatic power.
An uneasy balance of power
developed
between
the
two
kingdoms, which was punctuated by
wars and treaties. Although brave in
battle, Rameses was an inept military
strategist and spent the rest of his life
bolstering his image with huge building projects. His name is found everywhere on
monuments and buildings in Egypt, and he frequently usurped the works of his
predecessors and inscribed his own name on statues which do not represent him. The
smallest repair of a sanctuary was sufficient excuse for him to have his name inscribed on
every prominent part of the building. His greatest works were the rock-hewn temple of Abu
Simbel, dedicated to Amun, Ra-Harmachis, and Ptah; its length is 185 feet, its height 90
feet, and the four colossal statues of the king in front of it - cut from the living rock - are 60
feet high. He also added to the temple of Amenhotep III at Luxor and completed the hall of
columns at Karnak - still the largest columned room of any building in the world.
After Rameses’ death Egypt fell into decline. Luckily for Egypt, her prestige and preeminence as a world superpower was such that this process took a long time. Only one
other king, Rameses III (1184 - 1153 BC), was able to temporarily halt this process.
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Fall and
Summary
In the first millennium BC, there were no fundamental changes: the overall impression was
of continuity of ancient practice with no question of a radical restructuring of Egypt’s
institutions. Their state was now stuck in the past, surrounded by powerful neighbors who
were no longer theocratic states. Perhaps the greatest change though was the idea that the
king was no longer divine; no longer the repository of righteousness, truth and justice, or the
ally of the gods. The first millennium BC was a time of great brutality and upheaval across
the Near East, and it may be that the ideological basis of Egyptian civilization was already
undermined before it fell to the Greeks in the 4th century BC.
In the late 14th century, those questions of continuity were
examined by the great Islamic historian Ibn Khaldun. His
concerns were the nature of civilization, its rise and decline. He
considered that settled co-operative human life was the goal of
civilization; that it went in cycles of growth and decay like all
forms of life. He thought that over-consumption in society was an
inevitable cause of decline. But he believed that under certain
favorable conditions of geography and climate, of the character
and customs of the people, of their sense of group identity, culture
could acquire a rootedness that he called the ‘habit of civilization’.
And in all history, Egypt was perhaps the best example of that
habit. The pharaohs had political power for three thousand years.
‘So the habit of civilization was continuous here, nowhere else in the world was it more
firmly rooted.’ And such an idea helps explain Egypt’s continuing cultural leadership in the
Arab world. At the beginning lay the early Egyptian state, the first comprehensive attempt
in human history to satisfy the needs of men and women to live together an ordered state
with a degree of happiness and material well- being. And so far it has been one of the most
successful.
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New Kingdom Pharaohs
Quotes
 "The task of the leader is to get his people from where they are to where they have not
been." — Henry Kissinger
 "The leader is one who mobilizes others toward a goal shared by leaders and followers. ...
Leaders, followers and goals make up the three equally necessary supports for
leadership." — Gary Wills
 "The leader has to be practical and a realist, yet must talk the language of the visionary
and the idealist." — Eric Hoffer
 The very essence of leadership is its purpose. And the purpose of leadership is to
accomplish a task. That is what leadership does–and what it does is more important than
what it is or how it works. ~Colonel Dandridge M. Malone
 Don't tell people how to do things, tell them what to do and let them surprise you with
their results. George S. Patton
Essay.
 Read through the quotes above.
 Pick a quote that you feel reflects genuine leadership and also pertains to the pharaohs of
Ancient Egypt.
 Use the criteria in the quote to measure the leadership of three (3) of the pharaohs.
 Pick two that live up to the standard and one that does not.
 Make sure to show with specific facts from your notes how each pharaoh lives up to or
falls short of your selected quote.
You may use a pharaoh who is not on the list for one of your choices.
 Pepys II
 Hatshepsut
 Thutmose III
 Akenhenaten
 Ramses the Great (II)
Write the quote at the beginning of your paper as a kind of thesis on the idea of leadership. Your
essay should be three (3) paragraphs long. It should start with the quote and end with a
concluding sentence about the idea of leadership.
122
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2013. <http://www.touregypt.net/hdyn18a.htm>.
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Plateau; Sphinx and Pyramids; The Pyramid Builders.
Hooker, Richard. World Civilizations. 9 July 1999. Washington State University. May 2008
http://www.wsu.edu:8080/%7Edee/WORLD.HTM.
Kinnear, Jacques. “Horus.” Gods and Religion in Ancient Egypt. 23 January 2007. The Ancient Egypt
Site. 16 June 2009http://www.ancient-egypt.org/index.html.
Millmore, Mark. "Kings and Queens." Discovering Ancient Egypt. Mark Millmore,
2013. Web. 14 Feb. 2013. <http://www.eyelid.co.uk/index.htm>.
"Predynastic (5,500 - 3,100 BC)." Egypt: History - Predynastic Period. Tour Egypt, 20 June
2011. Web. 13 Feb. 2013. <http://www.touregypt.net/ebph5.htm>.
"Second Intermediate Period." Egypt: History. Tour Egypt, 20 June 2011. Web. 14
Feb. 2013. <http://www.touregypt.net/hsecin1a.htm>.
Wood, Michael. Legacy: The Search for Ancient Civilizations. New York: Sterling
Publishing,1992. Out of Print.
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