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Irish agriculture and farmland birds, research to date and
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future priorities
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Barry J. McMahon
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School of Biology and Environmental Science, University College Dublin, Dublin 4
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School of Biology and Environmental Science
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Agriculture and Food Science Building
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University College Dublin
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Belfield
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Dublin 4
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Telephone: +353 1 7167119
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Fax: +353 1 7161102
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E-mail: barry.mcmahon@ucd.ie
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Abstract
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Of the total land area of Ireland, 62% is devoted to agricultural production, thus
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highlighting the importance of this land use to biodiversity. European farmland birds
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have experienced rapid decline in the last thirty years. This is emphasised by the fact
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that lowland farmland provides breeding or wintering habitat to over 120 bird species
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of European Conservation Concern and this constitutes the largest number supported
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by any habitat. Of the18 species of birds that are of high conservation concern in
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Ireland, 13 are associated with agricultural habitats. Extensive research has been
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carried out in the UK and Europe to establish the cause and how to reverse the decline
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in farmland birds. A limited amount of work has been carried out in Ireland; however
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more work is required as it cannot be assumed that findings relating to the farmland
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bird ecology in the UK and Europe will apply in the Irish situation. It is apparent that
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extensification of agriculture through the vehicle of agri-environmental schemes is the
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method of choice to reverse the declines in bird diversity in farmland both in Europe
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and Ireland. It is the responsibility of policy, conservation and agricultural production
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agencies to embrace these schemes in order to optimise production and reverse the
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declines in Irish farmland birds.
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Introduction
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The importance of agriculture to biodiversity in Ireland is clear since 62% of the total
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land area is devoted to agricultural practices (Anon. 2006). Approximately 79% (3.4.
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million ha) of the agricultural area is in grass (silage, hay and pasture), 11% (0.5
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million ha) is in rough grazing and 10% (0.4 million ha) is devoted to crop production
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(Anon. 2006). The environment and consequently biodiversity has been, and will
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continue to be affected by agricultural activities. Farmland occupies the highest
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proportion, approximately 50%, of any land surface area of Europe and this makes
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agriculture the largest wildlife habitat in Europe (Pain & Donald 2002). Therefore, it
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can be assumed that much of Europe’s biodiversity is found on land devoted to
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agricultural production (Krebs et al. 1999). Due to the large area that is devoted to
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agriculture it has been repeatedly identified as one of the largest contributors to the
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loss of biodiversity worldwide (McLaughlin & Mineau 1995). Activities such as
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tillage, drainage, intercrop rotation, grazing and agrichemical usage have significant
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impacts on wild species of flora and fauna (McLaughlin & Mineau 1995). Farmland
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bird populations have declined in many parts of Europe, particularly in the last quarter
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of the 20th century, representing a severe threat to the biodiversity of the continent
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(Donald et al. 2001).
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Of the18 bird species that are of high conservation concern in Ireland (Newton et al.
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1999), eight species are associated with lowland agriculture namely Grey Partridge
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Perdix perdix, Quail Coturnix coturnix, Corncrake Crex crex, Lapwing Vanellus
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vanellus, Curlew Numenius arquata, Barn Owl Tyto alba, Yellowhammer Emberiza
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citrinella and Corn Bunting Miliaria calandra. Three species are associated with
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upland grazed habitats; Ring Ouzel Turdus torquatus, Hen Harrier Circus cyaneus
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and Red Grouse Lagopus l. hibernicus. Additionally, two species are associated with
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coastal agriculture namely Chough Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax and Twite Carduelis
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flavirostris. This emphasises the importance of farmland habitats in the conservation
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of Irish birds.
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The composition and distribution of habitats and wildlife communities has changed
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progressively with human use of the landscape. In the past many farming activities
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have been advantageous to wildlife, creating a diverse range of habitats suitable to a
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wide variety of species. However, the accelerated change in Irish farming on
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accession to the European Community may have reduced the value of Irish farmland
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in terms of biodiversity. Due to the large areas of Ireland that are devoted to
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agriculture it is fair to assume that a large proportion of the country’s total
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biodiversity inventory must be present in agricultural areas. However, it must be
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accepted that any attempt to explain the decline of Irish farmland birds is purely
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conjecture. Although the Irish Countryside Bird Survey (CBS) has been in operation
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since 1998 (Crowe & Coombes 2005) we do not possess ornithological datasets to
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cover the period of greatest agricultural change. It seems clear that there is a causal
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link between agricultural intensification and specialisation, and the decline of
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European farmland bird populations (Donald et al., 2001). It appears that the decline
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of farmland birds has been more acute in EU countries compared to former Eastern
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Block countries (Donald et al. 2002; Gregory et al. 2005) and there is a need to
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safeguard the populations in these areas. It appears that European woodland bird
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species have remained relatively stable in the last twenty years compared to farmland
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species (Gregory et al. 2005). There is an impression that the structure of plant and
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arthropod communities has shifted from specialist to generalist or pest species in
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lowland agricultural ecosystems (Sotherton & Self 2000).
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An assessment of the changes in farmland bird populations is possible since the CBS
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started in 1998. The populations of the majority of farmland bird has remained
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constant however there have been changes in the populations of certain species
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(Crowe & Coombes 2005). Kestrel Falco tinnunclus, Skylark, Stock Dove Columba
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oenas and Mistle Thrush Turdus viscivorus have declined severely. On the other hand,
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Stonechat Saxicola torquata, Sedge Warbler Acrocephalus schoenobaens, Blackcap
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Sylvia atricapilla and Goldfinch Carduelis carduelis appear to have increased in
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population size (Crowe & Coombes 2005). The interpretation of CBS data is limited
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as it has only been in operation for a limited number of years and more meaningful
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interpretation of the changes in the populations of individual species will be possible
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after the CBS has been operational after 10, 15 or 20 years. Nonetheless, the
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establishment of the CBS represents a critical step in establishing an index of the
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population trends of Irish birds.
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In the Republic of Ireland areas of natural diversity are designated as Natural Heritage
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Areas (NHA) and there are about 1,200 proposed NHAs. The most important of these
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are categorised as Special Areas of Conservation (SAC) and these are protected under
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the Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC). In time there will be around 400 SACs and
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importantly farmers own approximately 90% of the area of proposed SACs (Feehan
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2003). Special Protection Areas (SPA) are set up under the Birds Directive
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(79/409/EEC) and it places responsibility on individual governments to protect rare
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and threatened bird species, migratory bird species and wetlands important as bird
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habitats. There are 141 SPAs in the Republic of Ireland and a further 6 sites to be
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added before the end of 2007. The proportion of the total area of Irish SPAs that is
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devoted to agricultural activities is less than that of SACs. The explanation for this is
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straightforward as the criteria for SPA designation relates to internationally important
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migratory species, colonies or indeed habitats that support large numbers of waterfowl
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(Anon. 2002). As a result Ireland has designated many wetlands, estuaries and seabird
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colonies as SPAs as these fit the criteria, although a minority are found in agricultural
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areas. However, the importance of agricultural areas at a continental level can be
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appreciated since lowland farmland provides breeding or wintering habitat to over 120
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bird species of European Conservation Concern which constitutes the largest number
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supported by any habitat (Tucker 1997).
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Not all issues relative to birds and agriculture are covered in this paper e.g. the effect
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of drainage and bio fuels on farmland bird communities. However, this paper will
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address some of the major changes in agricultural practices in Europe and the
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Republic of Ireland in order to highlight the impact on farmland bird populations and
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how future practices can be adopted to optimise agricultural production in order to
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prevent further deleterious effects on Irish farmland birds.
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Changes in Agriculture in Europe and Ireland
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Over the last one hundred years in Europe there has always been a degree of political
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involvement in agriculture and with the inception of the Common Agricultural Policy
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(CAP) in 1962, which was preceded by the Treaty of Rome in 1957, the industry has
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been controlled by rules and regulations (Robson 1997). The last fifty years has seen
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the greatest and most rapid change in agricultural practices ever experienced by
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Europe. The reason for this was an attempt to prevent the food shortages that occurred
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during the Second World War. Every country in Europe worked hard to achieve food
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security and that was accomplished through price supports and other subsidies,
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intervention, the application of science and technology, and through support for
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research and development (Feehan 2003). Intensification of farming in Ireland
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dramatically increased when the country joined the European Economic Community
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(EEC) in 1963. The EEC developed into the European Community and eventually the
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European Union (EU). Community support and incentive schemes made it possible
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for farmers to improve their production potential by using the growing scientific
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knowledge of animal and plant husbandry, fertilizers, pesticides and also increased
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mechanisation (Feehan 2003). However, there were a number of unforeseen problems.
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Surpluses resulted from the guaranteed prices; subsidies resulted in difficulties when
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negotiating world trade agreements and deteriorated natural environment. The price
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support meant that production had been detached from the carrying capacity of the
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land resulting in a decrease in water quality and a reduction in biodiversity (Feehan
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2003). This intensification and specialisation of agricultural practices had a
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detrimental effect on biological diversity and integrity. Extensive farming, i.e.
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farming that utilises small amounts of labour and inputs (e.g. fertilizer and pesticides)
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relative to the area in agricultural production, has persisted in some parts of Europe
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usually where geology, topography or climate has prohibited intensification, or where
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cultural and traditional values have been the priorities rather than economic gain (Pain
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et al. 1997).
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The result in Ireland was a decrease in mixed farming with segregation of mixed and
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tillage farming in the east and southeast and the remaining areas devoted to grassland.
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This has been referred to as a geographical polarisation of agricultural practices.
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Intensification of farming practices resulted in an increase in the use of fertilizers and
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pesticides, a decline in areas of stubble during the winter, reduced rotational farming,
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silage production rather than hay, and a loss of non-crop habitats. So essentially the
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last 25 years has lead to intensification and polarisation of farming practices. It would
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appear that the decline of certain species coincided with these changes in agricultural
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practices. The decline of the Grey Partridge, Corncrake, Cuckoo Cuculus canorus and
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Corn Bunting appears to have been accelerated by changes in agriculture during the
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last 25 years. It is believed that the Corn Bunting is now extinct in Ireland but due to
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the void that exists in ecological studies in Ireland it is impossible to determine what
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factors caused the final extirpation (Taylor & O'Halloran 2002). Other species, such
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as the Yellowhammer and Skylark Aludas arvensis appear to have suffered from the
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changes in modern agricultural practices. The breeding population of the Skylark has
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declined by 25-50% in the last 25 years (Newton et al. 1999). The Barn Owl has also
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become increasingly rare on Irish farmland (Donaghy & Murphy 1999). These
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statements must be put in context, as the data does not exist to prove that agriculture
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caused the demise of certain farmland bird species. In addition to the alterations in
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farming practices, climatic changes may also affect the population dynamics of Irish
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farmland birds.
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The CAP reforms in 1992 set out to reduce food surpluses, lower prices to consumers
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and decouple farmer support from production (Robson 1997, Feehan 2003). Indeed
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protection and enhancement of the integrity of rural landscapes was another of the
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major aims of the reforms. A regulation was introduced that made agri-environmental
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schemes compulsory in all member states. Environmental issues became central under
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the Maastricht Agreement with specific measures being put in place to reduce the
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impact of agriculture on the environment (Feehan 2003). In Ireland the Rural
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Environmental Protection Scheme (REPS) was introduced as a result of the reforms
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and at present there are approximately 52,000 participant farms but in the next
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number of years the target is 60,000-70,000 farms (Rath 2002). Agri-environmental
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schemes such as REPS represent the best opportunity to protect and enhance
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biodiversity within agroecosystems. The decoupling of payments from production
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means that there is no longer a link between agricultural production and payment
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levels received. Agricultural land use clearly has an effect on the wider environment.
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This is illustrated by Figure 1. The impact that agricultural practices have on
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environmental quality and how this should integrate back into agricultural policy
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through knowledge based decision making is also illustrated in Figure 1. The dark
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arrows indicate how birds, as an element of biota, fit into this equation. Birds have
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been labelled as good indicators of overall biodiversity within the Irish agricultural
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ecosystems (Purvis et al. 2005). To date, the effectiveness of a knowledge based
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implementation of agricultural policy could certainly be questioned. However it is the
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responsibility of all components of the agricultural sector, namely agronomists,
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policy-makers, politicians, academics, conservationists etc. to ensure that the
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agricultural sector is optimised in Ireland and all components presented in Figure 1
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are utilised.
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Insert Figure 1.
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Ten new states joined the EU in May 2004 and two more in January 2007 bringing the
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total number to 27. The CAP reform and the recent enlargement of the EU by the
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inclusion of Eastern European and Mediterranean countries will attempt to learn from
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pervious mistakes caused by implementation of European agricultural policy. The
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intention is to not further damage the environments of existing states and to maintain
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and protect pristine and extensive habitats within the newer accession states.
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Birds and Agriculture: Europe and UK
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Statistically modelling the use of habitats by species is one of the ecological tools
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employed by conservationists in managing threatened species (Norris 2004). The
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political process of deciding precisely what regions are to be protected is a function of
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economic circumstances as much as any other factor. However, it is the responsibility
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of conservation biologists to assist in this process. Within agricultural ecosystems
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specific attention has been paid to both crop and non-crop habitats as certain attributes
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have been associated with bird diversity and individual bird species. Field boundaries,
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including hedgerows and field margins are particularly important non-crop habitats
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for birds in both the winter and breeding season (Arnold 1983, Lack 1992, Hinsley &
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Bellamy 2000, Vickery et al. 2001a). Studies have shown that the number of
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Yellowhammer territories can be higher along field boundaries if there is a grass
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margin (Bradbury et al. 2000). Indeed it has been suggested that a mixture of cut and
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uncut field margins would benefit invertebrates and it would create an optimal habitat
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for foraging birds such as the Yellowhammer (Perkins et al. 2002). It appears that tall,
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wide hedges with trees have the greatest bird diversity (Hinsley & Bellamy 2000).
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In relation to grassland practices it seems extensively managed unimproved grassland
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are important habitats to a number of threatened species (Tucker & Dixon 1997;
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Woodhouse et al. 2005). General insectivorous wintering lowland birds in the UK are
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associated with fertilised, improved grassland while bird species dependent on soil
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invertebrates are associated with unimproved grassland (Barnett et al. 2004). It has
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been suggested that to optimise grasslands for avian biodiversity, low intensity
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grazing that creates a range of sward structures and avoidance of weed control would
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be preferable to both granivorous and insectivorous bird species (Perkins et al. 2000,
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Vickery et al. 2001b, Atkinson et al. 2005, Buckingham et al. 2006).
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The management of cereals is also important to birds, particularly during the winter
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months. It would appear that most granivorous bird species prefer stubble during the
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winter period (Wilson et al. 1996, Buckingham et al. 1999, Moorcroft et al. 2002,
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McMahon et al. 2003, Hancock & Wilson 2003) and it is recommended that
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increasing the structural diversity of stubble will increase its value as a foraging
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habitat (Butler et al. 2005). Few bird species show preference for winter cereals
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during the winter season (Wilson et al. 1996; Buckingham et al. 1999; Hancock &
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Wilson 2003). In addition, few bird species nest in winter cereals particularly when
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the crop has grown too dense or too tall, and instead they opt for spring grown cereals
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(Chamberlain et al. 1999). Non-inversion tillage i.e. preparing a seedbed to establish
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another crop from the stubble of a previous crop without using the conventional
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mouldboard plough, has the potential to be beneficial to both insectivorous and
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granivorous farmland bird species (Cunningham et al. 2004). The use of winter bird
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crops (e.g. linseed Linum usitatissium, stubble turnip Brassica rapa, Phacelia
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Phacelia tanacetifolia,) perhaps as part of an agri-environmental scheme, may also
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yield positive results for farmland birds as the general densities of gamebirds,
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insectivores and granivores were all higher on winter bird crops than on conventional
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crops, stubble or grasslands (Henderson et al. 2004). Set-aside (arable land left fallow
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from production) is also associated with cereal production areas. Almost all bird
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species recorded preferred set-aside during the breeding season in a study carried out
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in England (Henderson et al. 2000). Indeed, the impact of the intensification of
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agricultural practices in Western Europe on avian biodiversity within arable
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ecosystems has received greater attention than that of grassland ecosystems (Aebisher
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et al. 2000).
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There has been a population decline and a range contraction of many farmland birds
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in Britain in the last thirty years, while few species have increased in number or
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become more widespread (Fuller et al. 1995; Chamberlain & Fuller, 2000;
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Chamberlain et al. 2000; Siriwardena et al. 2001). It seems unlikely that there is a
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single or simple explanation as to the causal factors of this decline (Fuller et al. 1995;
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Siriwardena et al. 1998). It is worth pointing out that the decline of many European
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farmland species seems to have coincided with agricultural intensification that also
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lead to polarisation and specialisation of farming enterprises (Donald et al. 2001).
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This intensification has not been confined to Europe and has also occurred in the USA
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(Matson et al. 1997). It should be stated that not all farmland bird species are in
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decline in the United Kingdom as demonstrated by the increase in the numbers of
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corvid species, e.g. Rook Corvus frugilegus (Marchant et al. 1990). It seems apparent
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that declining granivorous bird species are not associated with a particular plant food
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source but a general reduction in the abundance and diversity of food plants
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particularly on arable habitats (Wilson et al. 1999). Numerous studies have pointed
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out the decline in farmland birds in the UK and its association with intensification and
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specialisation of agricultural practices (O'Connor & Shrubb, 1986, Fuller et al. 1995,
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Siriwardena et al. 1998, Chamberlain et al. 2000, Chamberlain & Fuller 2001).
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Management of over wintering habitats which improve survival may be critical in the
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process of curbing the decline of many farmland bird species (Siriwardena et al. 2000;
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Hole et al. 2002; Gillings et al. 2005). It has also been argued that to reduce the
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declines in overall biodiversity there is a need to increase the level of habitat
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heterogeneity in agricultural ecosystems (Benton et al. 2003). There is evidence to
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suggest that where arable habitats are rare in a grassland dominated landscape there is
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a very strong association between farmland birds, particularly granivorous species,
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and arable habitats within these landscapes (Robinson et al. 2001) and this may
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explain the range contraction of granivorous species in the UK. Farmland bird
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communities consist of a small number, approximately 15 species, of very abundant
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and widespread species and about twenty less abundant but widely distributed species.
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Other, rarer species are incidentally present in segregated patches of suitable habitat
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(O'Connor & Shrubb 1986). Agricultural intensification has had a deleterious and
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measurable effect on farmland bird populations; this has been established through
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intensive studies of single and multi-species with similar findings being reported
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across a broad geographical range (Pain et al. 1997). The results of agricultural
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intensification are detectable at a continental level, making them comparable in scale
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with deforestation and climate change as a major anthropogenic threat to biodiversity
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(Donald et al. 2001).
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It is worth pointing out that in Denmark, farmland bird species have not declined like
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they have elsewhere in Europe and the UK, despite similar changes in agricultural
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practices (Fox 2004). One explanation for Denmark’s unique position is that a number
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of the granivorous breeding bird population are summer migrants and therefore
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changes in agricultural practice in Denmark would not affect food availability for
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many species during the winter. In addition, the increase in organic arable production
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in Denmark coupled with a reduction in pesticide usage may be significant in
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mediating farmland birds against the effect of agricultural intensification (Fox 2004).
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In an interesting assessment of literature associated with farming and birds, it is
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suggested that if agricultural practices have caused the decline of many bird species
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then agricultural practices should be able to restore the losses (Ormerod & Watkinson
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2000). This would seem to be the aim of extensive agricultural practices as endorsed
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by agri-environmental schemes. The ability of species showing marked declines in
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Europe to maintain their number and distribution in the Danish landscape in the face
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of agricultural intensification provides a certain amount of optimism for protecting
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and enhancing avian biodiversity and overall biodiversity in agricultural ecosystems
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(Fox 2004). In the Republic of Ireland we can learn from the initiatives taken by
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British Trust for Ornithology (BTO) and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds
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(RSPB) attempting to integrate agricultural production and the requirements of
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farmland birds. An example of this is the Sustainable Arable Farming for an Improved
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Environment (Henderson & Coombes 2007).This project tested and modified
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solutions to the problems faced by farmland birds in particularly in areas where winter
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wheat is grown.
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Irish Agriculture and farmland birds
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Although the Irish CBS, organised by BirdWatch Ireland, has been in operation since
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1998 (Crowe & Coombes 2005), it should also be stated that there have been a
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number of other in-depth Irish studies linking avian biodiversity and agriculture (e.g.
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Lysaght 1989, Moles & Breen1995, Feehan et al. 2002, Taylor & O'Halloran 2002,
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McMahon 2005,, Copeland et al. 2005). However, the majority of these studies have
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focused on farmland birds and hedgerows. This in not surprising as 1.5 % of the total
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land area of Ireland is accounted for by hedgerows (Aalen 1997). It would appear
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avian hedgerow communities in Ireland are dominated by five species namely Wren
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Troglodytes troglodytes, Dunnock Prunella modularis, Robin Erithacus rubecula,
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Blackbird Turdus merula and Chaffinch Fringilla coelebs (Lysaght 1989; Feehan et
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al. 2002). The components of hedgerow structure (e.g. hedge height) seem to be the
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most important factor in determining farmland bird communities within Irish
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agricultural ecosystems (Moles & Breen 1995). It would also appear that specific
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habitats (e.g. stubble in the winter months) within agricultural ecosystems are
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important predictors of the presence and abundances of specific bird species e.g.
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winter stubble and Skylark (McMahon 2005).
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Intensive Irish grassland appears to be a sub-optimal habitat for many Irish farmland
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bird species (McMahon & Whelan 2005), particularly seed eating species. A similar
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sentiment has been expressed about modern UK grassland when compared with arable
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or mixed agricultural habitats (Chamberlain & Fuller 2001). However, studies
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involving similar habitats in Ireland and the UK have yielded contrasting results. An
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Irish study of breeding birds comparing rotational and non-rotational set-aside found
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contrasting results to similar studies in the UK. Set-aside is the practice of leaving
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agricultural land out of production. This was initially introduced to reduce over
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production and agricultural surpluses in the EU (Buckingham et al. 1999) but it also
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has potential benefits for biodiversity. Rotational set-aside fields are rotated each year
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with a new section of land are usually derived from naturally regenerated over winter
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stubbles. Non-rotational set-side is land that is left fallow for several years and may be
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either sown grass or naturally regenerated vegetation. Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis
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and Skylark showed a greater association with non-rotational compared to rotational
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set-aside (Bracken & Bolger 2006). These finding are in direct contrast with findings
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in the UK (Henderson et al. 2000). A cautious approach should be taken when
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comparing results from similar studies in Ireland and the UK as there are differences
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in avian community structure and the relatively limited number of bird species present
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in Irish agricultural ecosystems (Lysaght 1989) coupled with marked differences in
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agricultural systems and the topography of the landscape.
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There have been a number of studies examining the ecology of individual species
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within Irish ecosystems (e.g. Cummins & O’Halloran 2002, Fennessy & Kelly 2006,
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MacDonald & Whelan 1986). In Ireland, Song Thrush Turdus philomelos breeding
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ecology appears different from that in the UK and the rest of Europe (Kelleher &
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O’Halloran 2006). In addition, the population of farmland Song Thrush in the UK has
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declined rapidly whereas in Ireland there is no evidence of such a dramatic
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deterioration in the population (Kelleher & O’Halloran 2006, Peach et al. 2004). This
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highlights the danger of assuming the results of studies in the UK apply to the Irish
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situation.
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Fennessy & Kelly (2006) demonstrated that the highest population densities of Robin
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seem to occur in those territories that included semi-improved grassland habitats.
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High bushy hedgerows also positively influence the number of Robin territories. It is
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important to appreciate that no simple hedgerow structure is suitable for all bird
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species (Hinsley & Bellamy 2000), although the field boundary evaluation and
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grading system, developed by Collier & Feehan (2003), has proved a useful predictor
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of bird species richness in both the winter and breeding season (McMahon et al.
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2005).
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A number of specific studies have examined the interaction between biodiversity and
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the Irish agri-environmental scheme, i.e. the Rural Environmental Protection Scheme
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(REPS). It is clear that REPS has the potential to benefit farmland birds (Table 1). It
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should be pointed out that these measures are just the basic requirements of the
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scheme and that there are optimal supplementary measures that are specifically aimed
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at enhancing habitats for farmland birds e.g. supplementary measure 1 Wild Bird
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Habitat. As yet there is no evidence to suggest that REPS is having a positive effect
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on biodiversity, including farmland birds (Feehan et al. 2002; Copeland et al. 2005).
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However, the questions regarding the effectiveness of REPS in enhancing biodiversity
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are yet to be conclusively answered. Since the introduction of REPS in 1994 no
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comprehensive study has investigated the effectiveness of the scheme for biodiversity.
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To carry out this type of assessment a baseline dataset is required to the measure the
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status of areas before and after REPS participation. A study group based at University
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College Dublin has initiated a project called Ag-Baseline which aims to collect a
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baseline dataset of plants, terrestrial invertebrates, aquatic invertebrates and birds
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within specific agricultural regions namely Cork, Offaly and Sligo/Lietrim. This
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dataset can be used in future years to assess the effectiveness of REPS in those areas.
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Insert Table 1.
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Future priorities and objectives
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To conserve current biodiversity and future evolutionary processes the emphasis
420
should be placed on habitat and ecosystem conservation and management. Such a
421
strategy is particularly true for avian biodiversity (Bruford 2002). It has been stated
422
that humans have two major influences on the global environment, modification of
423
ecosystems and the movement of exotic species (McKinney & Lockwood 1999). The
424
former issue rather than the latter should be addressed in relation to Irish agricultural
425
ecosystems.
17
426
427
A complete assessment of farmland bird populations and the ecology of farmland bird
428
species are prerequisites to devising and implementing conservation strategies (Taylor
429
& O'Halloran 2002). Although certain commentators suggest that a desk study of
430
farmland bird research would answer many questions relating to the Irish situation it
431
is clear that there is only a very limited amount of research information available in
432
Ireland compared to that of the UK, particularly in the winter season. Management of
433
over-wintering habitats that will improve survival may be critical in the process of
434
curbing the decline of many farmland bird species (Siriwardena et al. 2000; Hole et
435
al. 2002; Gillings et al. 2005). Findings that suggest that crops within the fields are
436
more important than field boundaries in determining bird species are essential to
437
provide information to help establish better wintering habitats for farmland birds. In
438
certain situations the quality of the habitat within the field, i.e. the crop or set-aside, is
439
extremely important in determining the species present within an area and this
440
information is critical to establish what the optimal wintering habitats for farmland
441
birds are in general and particularly those species of conservation concern. However,
442
a cautious approach should be adopted when applying findings in the UK to the Irish
443
situation.
444
445
Future research in Ireland needs to focus on grasslands, as the majority of Irish
446
agricultural land is grassland dominated (3.4 million ha). In addition, winter sown
447
cereals are taking over from spring sown cereals and as such there is a requirement to
448
investigate what mechanisms make winter cereals more attractive to bird species in
449
both the winter and breeding season. The interactions between bird populations and
450
the agricultural environment are unlikely to be straightforward, but both policy
18
451
advisors and conservationists need to understand these relationships if conservation
452
strategies are to be formulated and successfully integrated into agricultural policy both
453
at a national and European level (Siriwardena et al. 1998). Areas of farmland suitable
454
for one species tend to be suitable for other species (Gates & Donald 2000) and
455
although species have their own habitat requirements this principle may simplify
456
conservation strategies to a certain extent. However, species of conservation concern
457
(e.g. Corncrake) require and are entitled to specific and focused management
458
strategies to optimise their preferred habitat.
459
460
Extensification of agriculture through the agri-environmental schemes aims to
461
counteract the detrimental effects of modern agriculture. The initial results show that
462
there is little evidence to suggest that agri-environmental schemes are positively
463
influencing biodiversity compared to sites not involved in these same schemes (Kleijn
464
et al. 2001; Kleijn & Sutherland 2003). Indeed, similar results have been produced
465
from Irish studies evaluating REPS (Copland 2005; Feehan et al. 2002). Despite this,
466
extensive agriculture is likely to be the main vehicle to restore the populations of
467
European and Irish farmland birds. REPS does have the potential to contribute to the
468
protection and enhancement of biodiversity within the farmed landscape but this
469
potential has yet to be realised. The need to subject agri-environmental schemes
470
throughout Europe to evaluation, so as to assess the effectiveness of the measures
471
employed, is crucial. Collecting baseline data before a farm enters a scheme and after
472
the term of the scheme is completed coupled with control sites with similar initial
473
conditions and sufficient replication is required if competent evaluation is to be
474
completed (Kleijn & Sutherland 2003). There is also a requirement to balance “broad
475
and shallow” and “narrow and deep” approaches (Vickery et al. 2004), i.e. certain
19
476
requirements of the schemes should be of a general, broad nature coupled with more
477
focused, targeted measures. A supplementary measure in REPS is the Land Invested
478
in Natural, Nature Eco-Tillage (LINNET) and includes devoting land to winter bird
479
crops which contain a seed mix of species such as linseed, stubble turnip and phacelia.
480
This measure would fall into the “narrow and deep” category. Regardless of whether
481
the approach is “broad and shallow” or “narrow and deep” for effective schemes to
482
evolve, close links between policy and science are required.
483
484
It seems clear that in the past fifty years European agriculture has become more
485
industrialised through CAP. The irony is that now policy being determined by the
486
European Union is emphasising an extensive approach. Multifunctional agriculture
487
includes the conservation of biodiversity and it is an important concept (Donald et al.
488
2002). This concept goes beyond biodiversity and includes social issues such as rural
489
development. In the UK during the 19th century farming rotations provided a small
490
and varied habitat matrix on a farm by farm basis, which undoubtedly provided a
491
greater diversity throughout the landscape and was an ideal habitat for farmland birds
492
(Shrubb 2003). Perhaps recreating this heterogeneity is an important tool for
493
enhancing all biodiversity including birds (Benton et al. 2003).
494
495
In Ireland, unlike the UK, we do not have a historical perspective on the long-term
496
monitoring of birds. The Irish CBS only started in 1998, so we can only speculate as
497
to the reasons for the decline of certain farmland bird species. We can perhaps learn
498
from the analysis carried out by the BTO and the RSPB. Monitoring does not
499
completely fill the knowledge void that exists in attempting to protect and enhance
500
farmland bird populations. Both monitoring and in depth ecological studies will be
20
501
required to assess the changes occurring in the Irish rural landscape, particularly
502
agricultural areas. Other variables which have not been discussed will also be
503
important determinants of the future of landscape, such as climate change. However,
504
extensive agriculture and agri-environmental schemes are the two main mechanisms
505
that are being employed and will continued to be employed to preserve and enhance
506
the diversity and integrity of the Irish rural landscape. The integration of policy,
507
conservation and agricultural production agencies coupled with the application of
508
science should reverse the declines in Irish farmland birds.
509
510
Acknowledgements
511
The Ag-Biota Project provided funding for this work. Ag-Biota Project (Monitoring,
512
functional significance and management tools for the maintenance and economic
513
utilisation of biodiversity in the farmed landscape) is a capability project (2001-
514
CD/B1-M1) funded by the Environmental Protection Agency, Ireland, as part of the
515
ERTDI programme under the National Development Plan. Thank you to John
516
Whelan, Fintan Bracken and Annette Anderson for comments on the manuscript.
517
518
519
520
521
522
21
523
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34
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Table 1. A list of the REPS measures and their potential benefits to farmland birds
Measure
Potential benefit to farmland birds
Measure 1: Nutrient Management
Availability of invertebrate and seed food
sources
Measure 2: Grassland and Soil
Availability of invertebrate and seed food
Management
sources
Measure 3: Protect and maintain
watercourses and wells
Availability of bathing, foraging and
nesting areas
Measure 4: Retain Wildlife Habitats
Availability of foraging, nesting and
sheltering areas
Measure 5: Maintain Farm and Field
Boundaries
Availability of foraging, nesting and
sheltering areas
Measure 6: Restricted use of Pesticides
and Fertilisers
Availability of invertebrate and seed food
sources
Measure 7: Establish Biodiversity Buffer
Strips Surrounding Features of Historical
and Archaeological Interest
Availability of foraging and nesting
areas
Measure 8: Maintain and Improve Visual
Appearance of Farm and Farmyard
Overall improvement of the farmyard and
surrounding areas for biodiversity
Measure 9: Produce Tillage Crops
Respecting Environmental Principles
Availability of foraging, nesting and
sheltering areas
Measure 10: Training in Environmentally
Friendly Farming Practices
Indirectly a more informed farmer should
be able to adjust agricultural practices to
optimise biodiversity and work a more
viable production system
845
846
847
848
849
850
851
852
853
35
854
Environmental Change
855
Socio-economic
Change
856
Agriculture
Landscape
Environmental
Policy
860
862
REPS
861
Environmental
Knowledge Base
863
864
865
866
867
868
869
Environmental
Legislation
Biota
Water
859
Soil
858
Environmental Quality
Air
857
Figure 1. An overall flow chart indicating the effects that agricultural land use has on
the integrity of the wider environment. The dark arrows indicate how specifically
birds, as an element of biota, fit into the overall flow of agricultural activity.
*This diagram is supplied courtesy of Dr. Gordon Purvis, School of Biology and Environmental
Science, University College Dublin
870
871
872
873
874
875
876
877
878
36