Multimedia Literacy
Dr Hofstetter
Magriet Tonnis
Technology and Foreign Language Learning and Teaching
Since the time we are interested in the quality of language to which the language
learner is exposed, the importance of input (Krashen, 1982 in Lee and VanPatten, 1995)
has been undeniable. Thanks to the cultural input next to the linguistic input, the language
learner will get an extended view of the target culture. The importance of culture and
communication has been stressed with the appearance of the National Standards for
Foreign Language Learning (ACTFL, AATF, AATG and AATSP, 1995). The Standards
- also known as the 5 C’s- : communication (communicate in languages other than
English), culture (gain knowledge and understanding of other cultures), connections
(connect with other disciplines and acquire information), comparisons (develop insight
into nature of language and culture) and communities (participate in multilingual
communities at home and around the world) are not only the heart of the communicative
approach of foreign language learning and teaching, but a raison to use technology in the
classroom.
The theories of Krashen and VanPatten from comprehensible input to structured
input have paved the road for contextual learning. Consequently the content of language
classes is getting richer and more diverse. This is demonstrated by the introduction of
authentic material and a wider range of input: the four skills of reading, writing, listening
and speaking traditionally separated, are in the communicative language teaching
approach (also known as the new paradigm) integrated in the three communicative
modes: interpersonal, interpretive, presentation.
This communicative approach to language has marked a turning point in didactics
and challenges a new methodology. If one wants to ensure unity in didactics, one must
strive for a combination, an integration of linguistic and cultural content in a contextual
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Multimedia Literacy
Dr Hofstetter
Magriet Tonnis
Technology and Foreign Language Learning and Teaching
framework. The use of multimedia could provide a way of combining these two contents.
In discussing the pedagogical underpinnings of communicative teaching we examine how
technology can be integrated in the classroom, how multimedia can work in the
framework of contextual learning. Furthermore a recommendation and guidelines for a
pedagogically enhanced multimedia project will be discussed. Finally, we will have a
look at my own multimedia educational project; do the recommendations and guidelines
work?
In 1982 Krashen has published his Input Hypothesis. His claims that
comprehensible input causes acquisition. He believes that as long as there is motivation
and the right affective environment (low anxiety for example), a person cannot avoid
learning a second language if there is sustained comprehensible input. Others suggest that
language acquisition is a complex process involving social, cognitive, linguistic and other
factors. Because not all language learners are equally successful, there must be more at
work than only comprehensible input. Although input may be responsible for the
evolution of the language system in the learner’s head, having to use the language pushes
the learner to develop what is called communicative language ability. (Lee and
VanPatten, 1995, p.29)
According to Brecht and Walton (Donato & Terry, 1995, pp. 110-152), there are
three communicative modes in which all forms of communication occur. (1) The
interpersonal mode communicates meaning between (at least) two people and can be in
written or oral form. By observing and monitoring each other meaning is negotiated
between two entities. (2) The interpretive mode is a more indirect method of
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Multimedia Literacy
Dr Hofstetter
Magriet Tonnis
Technology and Foreign Language Learning and Teaching
communication compared to the interpersonal mode. Often, meaning is communicated by
interpretation of what is said, when and by whom. To be able to fully comprehend the
conversation, one has to understand the other person’s background and culture. (3)
Finally, in the presentation mode meaning is provided in a formal and one-way method.
Some common examples of the presentation mode include speeches and reports. Most of
the time, it includes a presenter and an audience. These three modes of communication
can only happen when a framework of contextual learning is offered to the learner.
Moreover, Canale and Swain (1980) mention that to be able to fully understand a
written or oral conversation in a second language one requires four skills: one has to be
familiar with: - grammatical structures and vocabulary (grammar competence);
- cultural environment (sociolinguistic competence);
- linking meaning over several sentences (discourse competence);
- guessing meaning from the context about missing knowledge (strategic
competence).
In order to address these four competencies one wants to ensure activities that combine
the four. In a communicative approach, the activities should encourage general language
learning, include real-life application, and have a universal objective. The usage of
authentic material and modern technology could enhance motivation and interpretive
communication. Authentic material and technology can give the learner a unique view of
the target culture and consequently increase understanding of conversation. In addition
with contemporary material it can take the focus away from the textbook and stimulate
the student’s interest in language learning.
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Multimedia Literacy
Dr Hofstetter
Magriet Tonnis
Technology and Foreign Language Learning and Teaching
The communicative approach is an approach that embraces technology. Shrum
and Glisan (2000, p.326) emphasizes the relationship between communication and
computer-use as followed:
Computer-meditated instruction is when the computer serves to facilitate or
enhance communication between the learner and the source of authentic material,
or between learners, or between machines.
Computer-meditated instruction is perfect to integrate the three modes of communication.

Interpersonal: organizing ideas, sharing information and reactions;

Interpretive: Acquire new information and perspectives;

Presentational: create a product, recreate a text.
Through the interpretive mode the learner acquires new information and explores cultural
perspectives as a result of listening to, reading or viewing an authentic text. With
technology as multimedia the learner can obtain information in various ways (e.g. web
links in the target language about the target culture, incorporate image to the texts with
video) and be in contact with authentic material (e.g. web links, video segments from the
news, films or interviews). Through the interpersonal mode the learner shares
information and reactions with other learners and organizes the ideas found in the text.
Here the integration between interpretive and interpersonal is important in the
motivational field. When coming up with new information found separately /
independently from each other (for example on-line information), learners will be more
interested and motivated to share information, since it is new information. Multimedia
offers a tool to communicate and to practice writing skills, which is email. Working in
expert groups students would have to send their information found to their fellow group
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Multimedia Literacy
Dr Hofstetter
Magriet Tonnis
Technology and Foreign Language Learning and Teaching
members, organizing the idea's found in a clear and correct way. Through the
presentational mode the learner uses his new knowledge and perspectives as he creates an
oral or written product. Giving an oral presentation on a subject, either a final
presentation or an overview of what is going to be researched does not necessarily ask for
technology but a written presentation could be perfectly done on-line. In this case
students could read the different presentations on-line and engage in discussion in class.
Using technology in this case would save time and give the students room to prepare
ahead of time and will ensure feedback on the presentation. Shrum and Glisan (2000,
p.134) state that interaction in this model can begin with any of the three modes, so that
the communicative skills and strategies the learner might use are reiterative and nonlinear in nature. This makes multimedia such a suitable tool for communicative SL
learning.
With the communicative approach to SL, technology has become more and more
accessible to the SL instructors and learners. Audio, video and computers are available
for foreign language instruction. Today one has a choice of multimedia software that
combines digital text, images, audio and video, as well as international sites on the Web,
which permits immediate on-line access to the world, the different people and the
different languages. As the discussion about on-line education continues, it is clear that
these new technologies can enrich and enliven language courses. It can provide greater
diversification of learning activities, accommodate different learning and teaching styles,
motivate learners, offer them extra practice and guidance and most of all involve learners
in foreign language and culture environments without having to leave the classroom.
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Multimedia Literacy
Dr Hofstetter
Magriet Tonnis
Technology and Foreign Language Learning and Teaching
The effective use however of these technologies is not that apparent / obvious.
Foreign language instructors are concerned with questions like: how to integrate
listening, speaking, reading and writing, to use authentic culture materials and very basic
how to ensure the use of foreign language characters, accents and non-Latin alphabets.
To promote the use of technology in SL education one should not only look at computer
software available but more so at the ways to ensure familiarization with technology and
it's possibilities of the part of SL instructors. Although there are some programs that
provide instructors with information, this is a job waiting to be done.
In the development of technology in foreign language education we see the use of
the term “ technology-enhanced language learning” (TELL) which, refers to some means
of technology to improve the flow or quality of the message between SL instructors,
learners and users. Subsumed within TELL are computer-mediated communication
(CMC), computer assisted language learning (CALL) and computer assisted language
instruction (CALI). These programs can facilitate the transfer from teacher-centered to
learner-centered environments. According to Watts (1997, p1) learner-based design
models focus on the needs of users and seek to utilize to the maximum the technological
resources available for the learning process. When instead other design models follow
technology driven approaches and are dominated by hardware considerations. To develop
more learner-based models one has to take into considerations all the pedagogical aspects
(and even more) seen in this discussion so far. The programs named before can be used
effectively for vocabulary acquisition (a lot of drill and practice), provide input-rich
activities (reading, video and Internet), writing improvement in output activities (writing
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Multimedia Literacy
Dr Hofstetter
Magriet Tonnis
Technology and Foreign Language Learning and Teaching
assistant, e-mail, chatrooms), exploration of authentic language use (e-mail, Internet) and
enhance student motivation. Each of these technological programs uses different types of
software programs, to find out which program is the most effective, one can follow the
checklist mentioned further on in the discussion.
Design guidelines for educational multimedia programs and projects will be
helpful when having to combine technology and pedagogical goals. In order to make a
project or program that will take into considerations technical and pedagogical
requirements, a checklist could guide one to make the right choices. There are three main
phases in designing a multimedia project: (1) there are the predesign considerations, (2)
the design considerations and (3) the evaluation or testing phase.

Predesign considerations will be about:
o Technical and practical requirements; hypermedia approach and planning
o Aims and objectives; learning context, strategy and goals
o Task requirements; students requirements and support, learning
environment
o Structure planning; organization, conceptualization, mapping, navigation
This phase will help to organize the main goals and ideas and to get an overview of what
the project is about and what it needs to succeed and operate.

Design considerations
o
o
o
o
o
o
Screen layout; optimization, presentation, consistency, clarity
On-line text; characters, presentation, length, emphasis, contrast
Images
Video
Structure; consistency, orientation, data recognition and accessing
Interaction; linguistic interaction, interactive match, quality
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Multimedia Literacy
Dr Hofstetter
Magriet Tonnis
Technology and Foreign Language Learning and Teaching
The design considerations focuses on the details of goals and creative ideas. It is putting
in place the pedagogical goals with the technological possibilities. This is the phase
where the actual design takes place.

Evaluation
During the process of designing and at the end of that process, one should adopt
evaluation methods as walk-throughs by instructors and learners to assess the usability
and learnability of the project. Evaluation during the process can help to adjust the design
accordingly.
Murray and Barnes (1998, p.251) suggest a framework to evaluate multimedia
software and projects on a pedagogical level. This all in order to help instructors to see if
the designers have implemented appropriate teaching and learning approaches.
Does the software incorporate manageable and meaningful input?
How is new language introduced?
Is sufficient practice possible before learners produce language?
This means are there enough input activities?
How does the software use the writing medium?
Does the software perpetuate cultural stereotypes?
Does the software attempts to create a target language context?
How authentic and accurate is the target language used?
Does the software incorporate suitable language learning activities?
How practical is integration of the software into classroom context?
How well does the software match learner's expectations and the needs of the class?
Does the software cater for all learners?
What form of assessment, learner feed back or profiling is provided?
How are language items presented on screen to the learner?
How clear are the instructions for the users?
What support for teachers is provided?
According to the communicative approach, the concept of adequate technology
use in foreign language teaching and learning should be based on student activities. The
activities have to cover the scope of how students learn (input > output), so that every
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Multimedia Literacy
Dr Hofstetter
Magriet Tonnis
Technology and Foreign Language Learning and Teaching
ability (reading, writing, listening, and speaking) is satisfied. Additionally, the activities
should be motivational, not mundane so that students are challenged and stay interested.
To keep learners interested and motivated it is important to use the adequate teaching
style for each different learning style. There are 5 main language learning styles
identified by Scarcella & Oxford (1992). The analytical-global styles are suitable
respectively for detail-orientated and holistic learners. Sensory preferences are for visual,
auditory and hands-on learners. Intuitive/random and sensory/sequential for learners who
prefer step-by-step ordered presentation and those who prefer random, abstract
presentation. Orientation to closure learners who need to reach conclusions they hold on
to rules and use metacognitive skills as planning, organizing and self-evaluation.
Competition-cooperation styles for competitive learners to whom winning is of most
importance and for cooperative learners to whom working with others is a helpful and
supportive. Multimedia is a perfect way to address each learning style: technology caters
to individual needs. Furthermore, it is necessary to include the five C’s from the National
Standards, which represent the content goal areas. Social, cultural context and authentic
material can greatly support the understanding and learning of a SL. As for instructor and
learner roles, with technology assisted instruction, the students will get more
responsibility for their own learning, while the instructor serves more as a guide and
resource expert.
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Multimedia Literacy
Dr Hofstetter
Magriet Tonnis
Technology and Foreign Language Learning and Teaching
For my multimedia project I have tried to incorporate the different aspects
mentioned in the discussion. Making sure there is meaningful input and integrating the
three modes of communication to ensure both cognitive and social processes. Activities
involving each of the three modes Interpersonal: organizing ideas, sharing information
and reactions. Interpretive: Acquire new information and perspectives. Presentational:
create a product, recreate a text. My project should be seen more as computer-meditated
instruction then entirely computer-based. There is room for personal interaction (in the
classroom) and extra activities and assessment (the absence of assessment, feedback and
support for teachers has also to do with the limited time and technology choice of the
project.). The importance of authentic materials and culture is taken into consideration by
adding links to French WebPages and video segments. The materials and activities work
because they help learners navigate the "Zone of Proximal Development" (Vygotsky,
1978) and progress from an actual developmental level toward a potential one.
Furthermore, working from input activities to output activities ensures the learning
process. The choice of activities is inherent to the different learning styles, for each
learning style there is a compatible activity:
Analytical-global styles are addressed by providing a text with questions and the expert
group activity where information has to be found and to be organized and presented. In
answering the questions analytical learners have to focus on the grammar (detailorientated) and global students have the opportunity to focus on main ideas (holistic)
while searching for information and organizing it.
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Multimedia Literacy
Dr Hofstetter
Magriet Tonnis
Technology and Foreign Language Learning and Teaching
Sensory preferences are fulfilled by the video segments and the discussion question that
follow. Visual learners prefer to read and visualize information and auditory students
enjoy discussion and verbal interaction.
Intuitive/random and sensory/sequential learning are both possible through the flexible
presentation of material on-line (links, images), learners can choose their own
presentation: ordered or random within the framework given.
Orientation to closure does not occur often, conclusions are made after the immigration
text and then again after the reading and viewing of the story.
Competition-cooperation styles are both addressed, the on-line activities are competitive
and have a direct good or bad outcome, and the learner can check his own progress. In
the group activities there is room for cooperation and the use of social strategies.
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Multimedia Literacy
Dr Hofstetter
Magriet Tonnis
Technology and Foreign Language Learning and Teaching
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Hofstetter, F.T. Multimedia literacy. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001
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