Geography Notes
What is coastal management?
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Coastal management is the management of development along the coastline with sustainability o Sustainability means being able to meet the needs of the present without compromising the needs of future generations
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Coastal management is difficult for Australia because of its small population and long coastline (36 735km) and high population density and fast development on the coastline o Australians’ love for water sports, beaches and views mean that 25% of the population live within 3 km of the coast)
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People need to be aware that: o The coastline is a delicate ecosystem that needs to be protected o The ocean is not a garbage dump for waste products o The ocean is not an infinite source of food o All levels of government and the public must take positive action to manage and protect our dying oceans and our coastline
Coastal management issues
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Coastal issues affecting Australia o
Beach replenishment o
Tourist development o Sea grass protection o Coastal and maritime development o Re-vegetation and weed o Eradication programs’ o Water quality o
Wildlife management o Pollution and waste management o Climate change and sea level rise
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The stake holders in the management on coastline are o Residents – people in surrounding community that wish to enjoy the o
Development – companies or individuals who build hotels, resorts, shops or residential buildings o Environmentalist – people who express concern about the over development of coastal areas o Government – which has the responsibility of managing coastal developments
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There are certain principles involved with competing interests of stake holders: o Sustainability - meaning means being able to meet the needs of the present without compromising the needs of future generations (already mentioned) o
Social justice and Equity – bringing a balance and a sense of fairness to all concerned because the interests of some players may be at odds with the interests of others. The decision made by governments may result in disputes and disagreements and these may develop into serious issues for the community
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The problems experienced on the coast is the result of the increasing preference of Australians living near the coast
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There is the danger of the continuous ribbon like pattern of urban development down the coast from Adelaide to
Cairns , from North to South Perth and around Tasmania meaning that the most urbanized areas of Australia are in a thin strip of coast down the edge of the country

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Control of the coastal environment is the combined responsibility of federal, state and local governments o Federal government - is responsible under the International Law of the Sea for almost all of the 16 million square kilometers of oceans around Australia. (extending 200NM from the shoreline and known as the
Australian Exclusive Economic Zone (AEEZ)) o State and Local governments - are responsible for specific coastal areas and use specific coastal organisations for this purpose (e.g. coastal watch, Dunecare, coastal council of NSW)
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These organisations are important because they take immense concern and care for the environment and its conservation. They also conduct research and raise awareness of the beach and its well being
Sydney Beaches (probably irrelevant)
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NSW Environmental Protection Authority (EPA)lol conducts test on Sydney’s beaches o Sewage treatment works and urban storm water programs help raise the water quality in Sydney’s beaches o The EPA’s HarbourWatch and BeachWatch Programs test for bacteria ( faecal coliforms and enterococci) to determine water quality o Lack of rain also helps to raise water quality
 Polluted water in Sydney’s beaches can increase the risk of contracting gastrointestinal diseases and viruses
 Beach pollution is detrimental to the well being and sustainability of Australia’s coastline
Management of Beaches
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Managing beaches involves studying beach profiles, beach erosion and deposition and the formation of sand dunes
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The erosive power of the sea , the movement of sand by the action of the sea and the wind can be quite rapid and dramatic
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Sometimes, human intervention is necessary to halt the rapid erosion of the beach o Beach replenishment is the dumping of more sand onto a beach that has been severely eroded o The re-vegetation of sand dunes that are subject to erosion is another strategy
(Warning/Note): some of the following information is not from the textbook but is from my assignment and what I made up
[cos the txtbook uses Cronulla] ) ref. to your own assignment here i.e. Colloroy, Dee Why for case study because it is just general
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Beaches is an important part of coastal management because they are popular places for people
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As more people use a beach, problems arise if not properly managed o Developers will seek the opportunity to build residential buildings and shops o
People on the beach and surrounding parks results in large amounts of litter o
It also affects the surround areas E.g. nearby beaches and parks close to ‘that’ beach
SAND DUNES
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Sand dunes are small ridges or hills of sand found at the top of a beach, usually above the maximum reach of the waves o They form from wind blowing and getting deposited on an obstruction such as a bush, drift wood or rock o
As more sand is blown onto the obstruction, the dune becomes bigger and forms rows at right angles to the prevailing wind direction o If vegetation starts growing on the sand dunes such as ‘sand couch’, its roots will bind and stabilize the dunes

o They are an important ecosystem supporting unique plant life and a healthy population of small insects and animals but are extremely vulnerable to erosion from either natural processes or human activity
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For dunes to form there must be a supply of sand, a means of transporting it, and somewhere for it to be deposited more quickly than it is eroded.
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Large expanses of water and prevailing winds south east winds over time has led to the formation of a significant area of sand dunes in Australia
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And until recently they were very extensive and covered a large area immediately behind the shoreline o
Recently sand mining of the dunes (because it is cheap) for the construction industry has destroyed and altered many ecosystems o Sand dunes in many cases act as a buffer against storms and south-easterly winds carrying sea spray, and shield the wet lands behind the dunes from being destroyed
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(interesting fact: because of the development on the front dunes, the buildings now act as the buffer and get damaged)
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Human activity has modified the beach environment to such an extent that the erosion suffered in storms has been more severe and slower to self repair
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Beach replenishment may have to occur more often
WAVES
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When a wave breaks some of the water will flow up the beach, this is called swash
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Its return back down the beach is called back wash
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Rock eroded from cliffs and material carried to the sea by rivers is transported up and down the beach by the swash and backwash of waves
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The Life of a Wave
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Wind blows over the ocean forming surface waves tha move in the same direction of the wave
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Waves travel across the open sea as an ocean swell
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As they approach the water, the friction drag of the sea bed shows the base f the wave more than the top
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The wave increases in height until it breaks on the beach
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The wave produces a ruse of water known as swash, which surges up the beach
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The water than flows back down the beach called backwash
Refer to diagrams in TXTBOOK and ASSIGNMENT for more clear information

Terrigal Lagoons and Wamberal Beaches
HOW LAGOONS ARE FORMED
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A lagoon is a former bay
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A lagoon is formed by the action of the sea where sand deposits form a barrier or baymouth bar at the entrance of the bay which partially or fully encloses it o A baymouth bar is a sand bar formed by the action of the sea and located at the mouth of the bay
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Sometimes, lagoons are open to the sea at high tide via a tidel inlet o A tidal inlet is a break in a sand bar, allowing tidal water to move in and out of lagoon
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The lagoon may be closed for a long time until a tidal inlet if formed by either: o Flooding from rivers or creeks that flow into the lagoon o Stormy seas breaking the baymouth bar from outside
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As water is comes down from the creeks and rivers feeding the lagoon, it also brings silt and clay
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This is a natural process that involves the lagoon become shallower over time and the straightening of the coastline when the lagoon finally fills up and becomes land
THE LAGOON ECOSYSTEM
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A wide variety of plant and animal life inhabits the lagoons along the coast of NSW
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Plant and animal life adapts to the condition of the water in the lagoon
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An inter-tidal lagoon will have different combinations of salt water, fresh water and brakish water o An inter-tidel lagoon is a lagoon influenced by the tide, with both fresh water and saltwater characteristics o Brackish water is a mix of salt and freshwater caused by the interaction of river and tidal flows
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Change in the condition of the water leads to a change in the ecosystem
CHANGE IN A LAGOON SYSTEMS
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A people build near a lagoon shoreline to take advantages of water views and water sports, natural vegetation will be replaced by concrete and bitumen as houses, roads and footpaths built around the shoreline
 which increases runoff with consequent increase in the silting up process
 the lagoon becomes noticeably shallower over time
 governments will eventually try and slow the process by building ponding basins and retarding basins
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A ponding basin is where a creek is deepened and/or widened to form a pond and prevent flooding down stream
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A retarding basin is similar to a ponding basin, sometimes with a miniature dam to slow or retard the flow of water
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Heavy rain can cause the creeks to drain into the lagoon to will raise the water level so high that some of the houses situated close to the shoreline will be flooded
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Artificial tidal inlets may be dug to empty the lagoon
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Over time, the action of the sea will reform the baymouth bar, and the lagoon will refill with fresh water
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Dredging the lagoon involves digging the mud from the lagoon because it has become too shallow with the silt that has collected in the lagoon
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This is disrupting a natural process

Positive Impacts
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Deeper water
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Clearer water
Negative Impacts
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Exposure of acid sulphate soil
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Damage to the ecosystem (in the sands and mud flats) – negative to bird life
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Accumulation of soil nutrients
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More aesthetic or visual appeal
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New aquatic habitat
SEAWALL
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Involves building a sea wall to be buried with the excess sand excavated from the construction and landscaped to give an appearance of a natural sand dune o Will be placed on the land fronting the beach o Will provide permanent protection for private and public properties o High initial costs but low maintenance costs o
Will require ongoing beach nourishment
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Erosional Features
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An outcrop
Soft rock
is a hard rock that is attacked by waves and is eroded slowly s when attacked by waves are eroded more easily
Headlands contain weaker rocks and resistant rocks
Eroded materials from headlands is transported in to the bays and trapped to form beaches
Waves attack the base of the cliff and erode a notch in its base
The weight of the cliff above the notch causes the cliff to collapse and starts to erod the material at the base
Waves and currents carry away debris and the sea starts to attack the new cliff
Distinctive Features of Australia’s Rocky Coast
Soft rock wears away more easily and forms
Harder rocks form headlands
More resistant rocks (hard ones) form bays outcrops and
Overtime, headlands weather away further and form beaches cliffs
Cliffs erode quickly when the rock is soft (E.g. sand stone and limestone)
The action of the break waves erodes the base of the cliff forming caves and arches
As the weathering process continues, arches can collapse and leave solitary rock features called stacks
Depositional Features
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In sheltered areas such as a bay, the size of the wave decreases
Sediment (small rocks and shell pieces) get deposited on land forming beaches
Over time, onshore winds blow sands inland forming dune systems
Sand may form on beaches from either: o Sand being transported to the coast via rivers o
It may come from eroded rock materials o
Longshore drift (continuous cycle of sand) deposited on beach
During storm destructive waves pound the coast and strip away the sand and rock
Sand is deposited in shallow waters in off shore bars and returns to the beach in a short period of time

Human Impacts on Australia’s coastal environment
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As a result of increased human activities on the coast, there have been increased pressure and demands on coastal systems
Human activities such as settlements, agriculture, industry, mining, recreation and forestry clears the coastal land
Vegetation cleared by human activities have exposed the soil to elements of the wind, waves and water leading to high levels of sedimentation in local waters and reduced water quality
Acid sulphate can be deadly if the soil that contains it is exposed to oxygen through excavation and other human activities
The toxins in the soil can move into the water and destroy the water quality and marine ecosystems
Coastal development and tourism can force these events to happen causing problems in Queens land and the
NSW bushland
Urban growth in Australia
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Over 85% of Australia’s population live in cities and large towns
Most of the Australia’s population growth occurs in large urban areas while there have been no change and even decline in rural areas
The settlement pattern in Australia is concentrated heavily in the south-east corner of the country, in particular
Sydney and Melbourne o Sydney and Melbourne are said to be primate cities o A primate city is demographically, politically, economically and culturally dominant over all other cities in the country o
40% of the population live in those two cities
During the 1970s, concern over the concentration of people living in the capital cities, led to governments adopting decentralisation policies o Decentralisation is the encouragement of growth of centres in regional areas to relieve population pressure on the large cities o Although much money was spend encouraging companies, government departments and people to move to these centres, the policies were not cost effective and largely abandoned o
Only a few rural areas have grown since
Urban Sprawl and Urban Consolidation
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Population density is how dense or sparse the population of an area is, measured by the number of people per square kilometre
In many cities around the world, there are large numbers of people living in the CBD o In Australia, the trend has been to living in the suburbs and travel to work in the CBD and leave the CBD empty at night o The trend has recently changed, with some old buildings being converted for residential use, in and around the CBD as well as new apartments being built
The reason why Australian cities have low population densities because of single stored homes (bungalows) which expands the city outwards, taking up a large land for a given population o The reason for this is partly historical and partly because of the availability of land
Urban sprawl is the continuous unplanned outward growth of a city with low density residential areas, sometimes referred to as suburbanisation o It has resulted from the traditional belief that everyone should have a home and a backyard and front yard

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The problem with urban sprawl is that services such as roads, water, sewerage, telephones, electricity and gas lines must be stretched to expanding areas at great cost
Transport links such as trains and roads and bus routes will also need to be extended
The policy of urban consolidation is used by the government to combat urban sprawl
Urban consolidation is existing areas of the city being used to build more medium density dwellings such as flat, villas and town houses or duplex so that it increases the number of people living in the area and lessens the need to build new infrastructure to extend services in outlying areas
The aim is to consolidate residential land use in areas where the services already exist
Urban Consolidation
Arguments for
Better use of existing services, such as electricity, gas, telephone and roads
Better use of existing transport facilities, especially public transport
Avoids unnecessary waste of land which would result if urban sprawl is allowed to go on unchecked
Social advantages in the aged people may be that better care for by family members if ‘granny flat’ development was allowed or encouraged
Arguments against
Overcrowding – too many people living in a confined area
Overshadowing – loss of sunlight and view as a result of buildings placed too close together
Parking problems – more people means more cars trying to park in the streets
Traffic congestion – more people means more cars on the streets and slower traffic flow
Growth and Decline
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Urban settlements are always changing
Buildings constructed long ago gradually age and become run down in a process called urban decay o
Urban decay is the gradual run-down of older buildings in the city o most common in inner city areas that are generally the oldest parts of the city o are often targeted by governments for urban renewal programs with small or large scale rebuilding o A city’s CBD is usually always in renewal if it is the focus of the city
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The CBD is where the attractions for the local and the tourists are, and the office and shop rentals are very expensive because of the volume of businesses there
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The volume of business attract developers
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Urban renewal projects are also common in the inner-city areas on the fringe of the CBD such as
Pyrmont
Urban renewal is the upgrading of inner city areas through renovation and redevelopment o It changes the nature of the community o People generally move out of their old, declining homes, as new buildings replace new ones o The new, expensive buildings force the low income families out and double income couples o
Gentrification is the process of changes made to a community as a result of urban renewal, where dilapidated houses are renovated and occupied by middle and high income families o It changes the nature, culture and values of the community

Australia’s Place in the World
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Australia is located in the southern hemisphere between latitudes 10 degrees south and 44 degrees south and between longitudes 113 degrees east and 154 degrees east
Nearly neighbours are Papua New Guinea in the north and New Zealand in the east
Australia’s location means that important economic, social, technological and political links have been developed between Asian Pacific countries
Australia’s Regional and Global Links
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Australia has always been actively involved in international affairs within the Asia-Pacific region
So it has close ties with both North America and Europe as well as Asia
Australia used to be linked closely with Britain because of transitional ties from the European settlement but because Australia is a Pacific nation and is closed to the South-East Asia and South Pacific regions, its futures lies there
Australia has regional links with countries in the Asia-Pacific and the Pacific rim in terms of o
Aid o
Defence o Sport o Tourism o Culture o Migration o
Communication o Trade
Why do countries trade
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Trade is the exchange of goods and services between nations
International trade is based on a country specialising in producing a surplus of the goods it be produce most efficiently in order to gain a competitive advantage o Surplus – a large quantity than needed o Countries benefit from trading their surplus for goods and services they need
The benefits of the trade are: o
Employment
– 1/5 of jobs rely on exports and a 1% increase in exports would create about 700 new jobs.
Exporters are also likely to pay better wages and provide employee training as well as have more full-time permanent employees o Business – local businesses become more competitive and are forced to become more innovative and adopt of develop new technologies and start growing. Exporting business also have a longer life-span than nonexporting businesses o Living Standards – Earnings from foreign exchange allows Australians to import a wider range of products at more competitive prices o National Benefits – ¼ of Australian incomes are generated by export. Australia’s source of income has become wide making it less vulnerable to global economic conditions. Trade also encourages better relations between nations (geopolitical ties) and encourage cultural understanding
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Geopolitical ties are a combination of geographical and political factors relating to or influencing a nation or region

o Consumer and Producer Benefits – they have more product and services to choose from at cheaper prices and this raise living standards and GDP (gross domestic product)
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Foreign trade is the sale and purchase of foreign currencies
Growth of World Trade
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International trade has increased 12 times since WW2 o This trend represents the important component of the process of globalisation o
Reductions of trade barriers, relaxation of investment restrictions and advancements in technology have lead to a increased flow of goods and services worldwide
Although everyone seems to benefit from globalisation and its associated economic growth, some say that only the rich and certain groups are being increasingly marginalised by this process
TRADE LIBERATION
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The World Trade Organisation (WTO) was formed in 1995 o This was the successor of the General Agreement Tariffs and Trade (GATT) organisation
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The GATT was formed in 1947 with the aim of settling trade disputes and organisation multilateral trade negotiations to reduce protection o Multilateral trade is trade that is many sided and involves more than two countries
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The WTO is committed to trade liberisation on a global scale through the elimination of tariffs , quotas , subsidies and embargoes and other restrictive trade practices o Tariffs are an import tax on goods coming into a country making the product dearer and allowing domestic o
Quota is a limit placed on the volume of a certain product thereby protecting the domestic industry and employment o Subsidy is the payment made to the domestic producer enabling them to sell the products at a reduced price o Embargo is a ban placed on the import of certain goods or services
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The WTO has made tremendous growth in world trade and the process of globalisation
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Some countries feel that they need to protect their domestic industries using restrictive practices or barriers to trade o Some countries see the benefits of banding together to form trading blocs o Trading blocs are a group of countries that form a mutual trading relationship between themselves in preference to countries outside the trading bloc
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Members in the trading bloc receive preferential treatment and non-member nationals only hav restricted access to markets in the bloc
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E.g. are European Union (EU) and Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)
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Australia is also eager to establish bilateral free trade agreements with countries such as Singapore and USA o Bilateral trade is a two sided trade involving two countries o
The Drivers of Globalisation are: o Global consumers o
Deregulation of financial market o Role of government o Growth of TNC o The impact of technology

Australia’s Trade Composition
EXPORTS
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Exports are goods and services sold to foreign consumers earning foreign exchange o
Australia export composition has changed from wool, wheat and metals to coal, iron ore and other minerals o Australia main exports are minerals , energy and agriculture and manufactured goods o They have increase the export of manufactured goods and services
Services such as tourism and education are major earners of foreign exchange
The fastest growing exports in the last ten years have been wine , motor vehicles and medicaments o Medicaments are medicines, substances used in treating diseases
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Merchandise exports (goods) trade is categorised as o
Primary products – products such as wool, wheat and minerals, which are raw materials and make up a large composition of Australia’s exports o Simply transformed manufactures (STMs) - includes processed (canned) foods which do not require much processing to become a consumer good o Elaborately transformed manufactures (ETM) – includes computers and cars that require a lot of processing to become a consumer good o Other Exports
EXPORTING EDUCATION
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Education is a major export industry worth more than $3.5 billion annually
More than 150 000 international students study in Australia o Most are in higher education or vocational cources o
The most populat courses are business, administration and economics o
Australia is a world class provider of knowledge-based services
The policy of exporting education was introduced in 1986 o Universities and other educational institutes were granted approval to admit places to overseas students at full cost so that:
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It provides export earnings from student fees, travel costs, tourism earnings for relatives visiting, the provision of goods and services and the purchasing of study material and other equipment
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It replaces the long standing British educational export market
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Creates global links with other countries and spreads the English language
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Promoting commercial links with non-English speaking nations
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Promote a business orientated spirit among education facilities
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Provides additional multicultural experiences for local students
 Promotes the image that Australia is a ‘smart’ country
Imports
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Imports are goods and services purchased from another country
Australia relies heavily on ETM imports such as computers and vehicles
Eight of the ten top merchandising imports are ETMs
Direction of Australia’s Trade

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From 1900-1950, Australia’s trade was dominated by the UK
But by the 1960s, there was a major shift with the value of imports and exports to/from the UK declined and
Asian markets began to dominate
Since the 1970s, Japan has dominated the export market, and the USA dominated the import market
The grow trade links with the Asia Pacific region are a consequence of o A sustain period of economic growth in the Asia-Pacific region o
The proximity of the region to Australia makes trade cheaper o
The potential market in the region – China alone has more than a billion people o Britain’s membership to the EU trading bloc which has made it difficult for Australia to gain access to the market o The establishment of regional trade agreements and trading blocs such as the Association of South-East
Asian Nations (ASEAN) and APEC, and free trade agreements with countries such as Singapore
Australia’s Trade Policy
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The Australian government focuses on creating new and more open markets for export o Australia has devised strategies to reduce trade tariffs on imported goods o
Australia sends and receives trade delegates for trade talks with nations o Is an active lobbyist for free trade E.g. Australia attacked the EU for its billion dollar barriers to the
Australian agriculture market o Australia is part of a number of organisations and agreements
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Australia is part of the WTO at the international scale
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Regional agreements such as APEC and Closer Economic Relations (CER)
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Bilateral agreements with countries such as the USA, Singapore and Thailand
MULTILATERAL AGREEMENTS (WTO)
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The WTO replaced the GATT in 1995
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GATT started with 20 members and the WTO today has 146 members
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The aims of the WTO is to settle trade disputes and to get countries to agree to remove existing trade barriers
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But negotiation by the WTO are not always successful o Less developed countries are often concerned with the inclusion of foreign investment in the agreements o
Foreign investment includes all asset holdings by foreigners whether in the form of bank deposits, bonds, stock or titles of ownership o Because of this, Australia has moved towards more regional and bilateral agreements
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The WTO helps to: o Lower costs e.g. tariffs o Promote greater competitiveness o Increase growth
REGIONAL AGREEMENTS
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Most of the regional trade agreements that Australia is involved with are with the Asia-Pacific Region
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APEC is the dominant regional agreement that aims to promote open and free trade in the Asia-Pacific Region
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Other regional agreements include o AFTA-CER : the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) and the New Zealand (CER) are working with Australia to develop a Closer Economic Partnership (CEP) – the CEP aims to provide benefits for business for member nations

o IOR-ARC : the Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation (IOR-ARC) has nineteen members from around the Indian Ocean – the association’s aim is to promote trade and investment for member nations
APEC: A SPECIAL TRADE LINK
 APEC is the key element of Australia’s regional trade policy and our largest regional trade policy and our largest regional trading group
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The role of APEC in the region is to: o
Foster trade o
Encourage investment liberalisation o Facilitate business negotiations o Encourage technical and economic cooperation o Provide policy consultation on a range of economic, social and environmental fields o Provide a forum for Asia-Pacific leaders to formally engage in an annual meeting to discuss current regional and international matters
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There are 21 nations (you can’t possibly remember them all anyway)
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The advantages of being a member of the APEC are o Status as an export market o Its contribution to tariff reduction and economic growth
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The criticism of APEC include: o The APEC benefiting big businesses by allowing TNC easier access to markets in the region o
The influence of TNCs has caused unemployment in the region in industries such as clothing and manufacture because they can’t compete with the TNC’s cheap labour costs o The is a conflict of interest between the developed countries E.g. Australia and less developed countries who remain suspicious of trade liberalisation (meaning making more free markets) o Dominance of APEC members over pacific non-members who are trading partners and are forced to comply with the APEC conditions but receive none of the benefits o
Trade liberalisation overshadows the social and environmental concerns such as human rights records of member nations
Bilateral Free Trade Agreements (FTAs)
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Bilateral free trade agreements between Australia and neighbouring Asia-Pacific and Pacific Rim countries are more about money making and less complicated than multilateral trade agreements
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As the tension builds in the WTO, Australia and the USA are moving towards making bilateral trade agreements with individual countries o Bilateral free trade agreements are allowed under WTO regulations as along as the participants comply to certain rules o The aim of a bilateral free trade agreement is to removal all trade barriers on goods and services between the two countries o
There if often a lot of negotiation before it can be established to discuss the terms
AUSTRALIA – UNITED STATES FREE TRADE AGREEMENT (AUSFTA)
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Australia and the USA began free trade agreements negotiations in March 2003 o Australia aimed to access a market of 300 million people will relatively high incomes o The other aim was to negotiate the elimination of agricultural trade barriers that had stopped its trade to USA o The FTA was estimated to increase Australia’s GDP by $4 billion annually o
It was also aimed to boost employment levels, attract US investment into Australia and improve business relations in areas such as e-commerce
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The FTA was in power from 2005

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In Australia there was the issue of social and equity needed to be considered including farmers, unions, social welfare organisation, churches and arts groups o They were concerned about issues such as the inclusion of all agricultural materials without exception
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Other arguments against the free trade agreement includes o There was no study that showed the agreement would bring any significant gain o
Australia bargaining power was too small o The complete removal of tariffs on Australia textile, clothing and vehicles would threaten jobs o The price of medicine would increase because Australia would have to remove its price control on large pharmaceutical firm in America o The removal of foreign investment regulations mean that no restriction could be made on American companies even if it wasn’t in the interest of the nation. US companies could sue the government if our laws threatened their investments o
American imports will sweep Australia and we may lose our cultural identity o Australian quarantine laws would have to be removed as they are a threat to US farming interests
The Role of Government and Non-government
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The main functions of DFAT and Austrade is to promote and facilitate trade between Australia and the world
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State governments compete for international events such as the Olympics or World Cup Rugby and for business deals that see the location of headquarters or contracts for manufacturing deals
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The department of State and Regional Development is a state-based government department with the role of facilitating international business development in NSW o It works with local businesses by organising trade mission to help them establish themselves in the international economy
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The NSW-Asia Business Advisory Council also assists the NSW government in the promotion of trade and investment for NSW in Asia
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Non government organisation such as AFTINET are mainly concerned with critically reviewing trade and investment practices to sustain cultures and environments
Foreign Investment
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Investment from overseas companies, governments and individuals helps boost the development of the Australia economy and earnings from foreign exchange
 Foreign exchange can be direct capital investment in project or the establishment of a company’s main or subsidiary operations o Direct capital investment is the allocating of funds to a development project in an overseas country
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Sydney is an example of a global city o A global city is a city with strong worldwide trading links
 Through the organisation of “Invest Australia”, the Australia government provides information and advisory service for potential investors from around the globe o It promotes Australia as an ideal location for seeking market opportunities in the Asia Pacific Region
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Australia aggressive marketing for overseas investors had resulted in many transnational corporations to come to
Australia and provided employment , research and development advancement , business skills development and foreign exchange earnings for the nation

Population Growth in Australia
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The rate of future population growth in Australia will depend on o Fertility o Life expectancy o Net overseas migration
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According the ABS, the population is to grow to 28 million by 2051
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There are several scenarios that will determine Australia’s population growth into the future o
Series 1
– relatively high fertility rates (1.75) combined with high net overseas migration, will lead to continuous growth and decline rates throughout the twenty first century (33 million by 2101) o Series 2 - low fertility (1.60) combined with medium migration, which would lead to the population peaking at around twenty-six million in 2064, then decline gradually o Series 3 - low fertility (1.06) combined with low migration, which would lead to the population peaking earlier in 2049 at a lower rate of 24 million then declining more rapidly than series 2
Age Structure
 Due to decline fertility rates and increased life expectancy, Australia’s population is aging
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Following the baby boom the fertility rate dropped from 3.6 to 1.75 because o The availability of birth control o Changing attitudes towards the role of women in society o Increasing numbers of women in the workforce o Women delaying marriage and child birth to later in life
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The life expectancy has increased due to better nutria
AGING OF THE BABY BOOMERS
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Due to the high fertility rates and immigration after world war 2, there was a significantly large number of people born between 1945 and the 1960s
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The people born during this baby boom are known as baby boomers
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As this age group grows older, never have there been so many people that will be in the older age groups
THE IMPLICATIONS OF AN AGEING AUSTRALIA
 The aging of Australia’s population will have a range of impacts on the rest of society o
There will be a need for action as the supply of younger people in the work force drop while the demand for economic growth increases as well as competition o The need for adequate and sustainable levels of income to support the retirees o The need for positive individual and community attitudes towards the aging o The need for age-friendly infrastructure such as public transport, housing and parks to allow old people to remain and participant in society o
The importance of healthy aging so that the people age and stay health and independent for as long as they can o The demand for age care and health care services
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But the aging population can also provide benefits to society by saving money o People over 65 save $39 billion dollars by looking after children, doing housework or volunteering

Spatial Distribution
 Australia’s average population density is 2.5 people per square kilometre but it is not evenly spread o People are concentrated in the coast, mainly at the eastern edge of Australia o Within the coastal strip, Australia’s population is concentrated in urban centres and the capital cities o 60% of NSW’s population is in Sydney o Metropolitan primacy is the concentration of the population of each state and territory in the capital cities o This movement towards the coast have been happening since 1901
LOOKING FOR SEA CHANGE
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While many people leave the city for the coast, many also move to non-coastal locations, particularly those that are no far from the city
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There are two types of city change regions o Peri-metropolitan regions – those that are relatively close to the cities but beyond the edge of the official suburbs of the city but within commuting distance from the jobs in the city E.g. Central Coast and Blue
Mountains o High amenity growth regions – those that are remote, lying beyond the commuter field of the city. These regions are primarily coastal E.g. Coffs harbour and Port Macquarie
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The factors driving growth of peri-metropolitan regions o Increasing number of people with disposable incomes and work flexibility (temporal and locational) to exercise the choice of peri-metropolitan settings o The potential in telecommunication to release people from the need for daily proximity to jobs and businesses o
Improved road and commuter rail standards o
Decentralisation of jobs within metropolitan regions, which in tern permits commuting from more distant and peripheral areas o Factors such as the rise in incidence of early retirements, a resurgences in the popularity of holiday homes and weekend recreational trips, and a partial shift in preferences away from the coast in favour of inland regions
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Sea changers are classified as two groups o Free agents – those who are more or less make a free choice to leave the metropolis
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Retirees – who are driven to sell their high priced homes to move to a quieter location with a cheaper property
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Working aged people – from professional to labourer who follow the retirees and tourist who needs goods and services; they are also able to take advantage of cheaper housing facilities o
Forced relocators – those who are pushed out from the city because of the high cost of living
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The inner city suburbs around the city have also experienced fast population growth
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The revival of some of the inner city areas is the result of young people seeking out a lifestyle that is closed to work as well as restaurants and cafes and the cultural life of the cities