Matthias Brenzinger, Sprachsoziologie – Köln, SS 2005
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Bilingualism - Diglossia - Code-switching
Africa is a continent of multilingual communities and multilingual individuals.
Individual Bilingualism
"Since bilingualism is a relative concept, it involves the question of degree. How well does the
individual know the language he uses? In other words, how bilingual is he? Second, it involves the
question of function. What does he use his languages for? Third, it includes the question of
alternation. To what extent does he alternate between his languages? How does he change from
one language to the other, and under what conditions? Fourth, it includes the question of
interference. How well does the bilingual keep his languages apart? To what extent does he fuse
them together? How does one of his languages influence his use of the other?" (Mackey 1968:5556)
Basic question (see also above): Which varieties are considered to be distinct languages or to be
dialects of one language?
"From a purely linguistic point of view there is no real reason for treating Zulu as distinct from
Xhosa" (Guthrie 1948)
Degree: Language competence
Maximal proficiency required "native-like control of two languages" (Bloomfield 1933:56)
Minimal proficiency required: when the speaker of one language can produce complete
meaningful utterances in another language (Haugen 1953:6)
Practical definition: "Somebody who regularly uses two or more languages in alternation is
bilingual." (Appel & Muysken 1990:3)
("Passive" or "receptive bilingualism", no productive competence of the second language)
Functions and domains: motives and contexts of language choice?
1 Domains, settings, functions
ex: School (medium of instruction, subject, informal conversation) church (sermon,
liturgical medium), media, administration, army, police, trade, jurisdiction, work, family)
2 Relationship of speakers: employer - employee, child - parent, woman – woman.
3 Formality: formal, polite, humble, relaxed,
4 Topic: Technology, traditional economies, religion.
5 Motives and intention: (refer to Code-switching)
6 Media: spoken or written language
Examples for alternation - interference (- function): Diglossia and Code-switiching
Diglossia
“Ferguson (1972:232) originally used the term ‚diglossia’ to refer to a specific relationship
between two or more varieties of the same language in use in a speech community in different
functions. The superposed variety is referred to as ‘High’ or simply H, and the other variety or
varieties as Low”, or L. The most important hallmark of diglossia is the functional specialization
Matthias Brenzinger, Sprachsoziologie – Köln. WS 2005
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of H and L. In one set of situations, only H is appropriate, while in another, only L.” (Romaine
1989:31)
"Where sharp differences in form and function exist between formal and informal style, we speak
of Diglossia." (W.Bright 1964:12)
Fishman extends the use of "diglossia" for functional differentiation with different languages. He
also argues that modern life does no longer allow for a strict compartmentalization of H and L
varieties.
Fishman (1980) shows that the relationship between individual bilingualism and societal diglossia
is not a necessary or causal one. There is 1. both, diglossia and bilingualsm, 2. diglossia without
bilingualism, 3. bilingualsm without diglossia and 4. neither diglossia not bilingualsm.
Code-switching
Embedded (EL) and Matrix language (ML) (Carol Myers-Scotton 1993)
Leo sikuCOME na BOOKS zangu
"Today I came without my books".
ML = Swahili; EL = English
AlimMARRY msichana yule lakini HE WAS NOT HAPPY.
“He married the girl but he was not happy”.
ML = Swahili; EL = English; ML & EL = English.
Types of code-switching (Romaine 1988:112-115)
 "Tag-switching involves the insertion of a tag in one language into an utterance which is
otherwise entirely in the other language.” (Romaine 1988:112)
 "Intersentential switching involves a switch at a clause or sentence boundary, where each
clause or sentence is in one language or another.” (Romaine 1988:112)
 "Intrasentential switching involves, arguably, the greatest syntactic risks, and may be
avoided by all but the most fluent bilinguals." (Romaine 1988:113)
Motives for code-switching (Appel & Muysken 1990: 118-121)
1. Referential function caused by lack of language competence (code-confusing)
2. Directive function to exclude certain persons from (portions of ) the conversation (children,
buyers)
3. Expressive function to emphasize a mixed identity (Sukuma in Dar-es-salaam)
4. Phatic function to change tone of conversation (private - official, friendly - hostile)
5. Metalinguistic function to impress others with language skills (???)
Matthias Brenzinger, Sprachsoziologie – Köln. WS 2005
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Consulted literature and further reading on Sociolinguistics
Appel, René & Pieter Muysken 1987. Language Contact and Bilingualism. London: Edward
Arnold.
Bloomfield, Leonard 1933. Language. New York: Holt.
Ferguson, Charles A. 1959. ‘Diglossia’, Word 15:325–340.
Fishman, Joshua A. 1965. ‘Who Speaks What Language to Whom and When?’, Linguistics 2:67–
88.
1980. 'Bilingualism and Biculturalism as Individual and Societal Phenomena', Journal of
Multilingual and Multicultural Development 1:3-37.
Guthrie, Malcolm 1948. The Classification of the Bantu Languages. London, New York, Toronto.
Haugen, Einer 1953. The Norwegian Language in America: A Study in Bilingual Behaviour.
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Mackey, William F. 1968. The Description of Bilingualism', in: Fishman, J. (ed.) Readings in the
Sociology of Language. The Hague: Mouton. Pp.554-584
Myer-Scotton, Carol 1993. Social Motivations for Code-Switching. Evidence from Africa.
Oxforld: Oxford University Press.
Romaine, Suzanne 1989. Bilingualism. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Weinreich, Uriel 1953. Languages in Contact, Findings and Problems. The Hauge: Mouton.