PSYCHOLOGY OF MOTIVATION FROM AN ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE
Alizi Alias
Department of Psychology
International Islamic University Malaysia
Jalan Gombak
53100 Kuala Lumpur
03-20565096
alizi@iiu.edu.my
Mohamad Zaki Samsudin
Department of Psychology
International Islamic University Malaysia
Jalan Gombak
53100 Kuala Lumpur
03-20564000, ext: 3047
szaki@iiu.edu.my
ABSTRACT: The objective of this paper is to provide an Islamic perspective on the
psychology of motivation. This is a theoretical paper based on reviews of past secondary
sources of Islamic and psychology literature. First, the paper will provide an Islamic
overview on the concept of motivation starting with the basic motives that all human
being has and ending with the influence of soul in human motivation. The basic motives
discussed are hunger, thirst, sex, aggression, power, achievement, affiliation, exploration,
and spiritual/religious motivation. Second, the paper will evaluate contemporary
motivation theories from an Islamic perspective. The theories that will be discussed are
instinct theory, drive-reduction theory, arousal theory, intrinsic/extrinsic motivation
theory, and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. The Islamic perspectives will include Qur’anic
verses, Prophetic Hadiths, stories of the Prophets and Companions, and the work of early
Muslim scholars using terms familiar to contemporary psychology. Direct comparisons
will be made between Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and the Islamic concept of Maqasid
Shar`iyyah (the objectives of the Islamic law). Third, the paper will outline a suggested
integrated model of motivation from an Islamic perspective. Finally, the paper will
illustrate the motivation of the Sahabahs to participate in Jihad, as an example of an
Islamically oriented application of motivation principles in human behaviour. In the end,
the paper intends to show that understanding the principles of motivation can lead us to
appreciate more the oneness and greatness of Allah and help us fulfil our role as His
servants (`ibadah role). In addition, the paper also intends to show that applying the
principles of motivation can help us fulfil our role as vicegerents of Allah (khilafah role)
by improving the effectiveness of our da`wah (propagating Islam) and tarbiyyah
(educational training).
Paper presented at the 3rd International Seminar on Learning and Motivation(1012 September 2005) organised by Faculty of Cognitive Sciences & Education
Universiti Utara Malaysia at City Bayview Hotel, Langkawi, Kedah, Malaysia.
1
INTRODUCTION
The objectives of this paper are: (1) to provide an Islamic overview on the
concept of motivation, (2) to provide Islamic perspectives on various primary and
secondary needs, (3) to evaluate contemporary motivation theories from an Islamic
perspective, (4) to integrate various motivation theories to form an Islamic model of
motivation, and (5) to illustrate the application of the Islamic motivation model from the
Biography of the Prophet. The paper presupposes that the readers have a working
knowledge of the psychology of motivation (including familiarity with Instinct Theory,
Drive-Reduction Theory, Arousal Theory, Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Theory, and
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs), or will be using this paper in conjunction with a
psychology of motivation textbook. Therefore, this paper will focus more on evaluation
of current theories as compared to describing theories of motivation.
ISLAMIC OVERVIEW OF THE CONCEPT OF MOTIVATION
Contemporary psychology defines motive as a specific need or desire, e.g.
hunger, thirst, or achievement that provides behaviour with both energy and direction
(Reeve, 2005). There is no mention at all about the existence of the soul and its influence
on human motivation as believed by Muslims (Abdul Shakoor, 1978; Al-Awneh, 1999).
Since human beings have a dual nature (body and soul/psyche), naturally there should be
two types of motives: (1) biological motives, and (2) psychological motives. Biological
or primary motives may include hunger, thirst, and sex. Psychological motives such as
achievement, affiliation, manipulation and control, and exploration and curiosity can be
grouped as psychological or secondary motives. And, from the Islamic perspective,
religious motive should also be included as one of the psychological motives.
Obviously, the degree to which religious motive influences behaviour requires the
souls of human to be at a certain level of iman (iman as a continuous variable) or certain
level of potentiality to accept iman (iman as a discrete variable). Since contemporary
Western psychology does not include soul as a subject matter of study, the religious
motive receives minimal attention in psychology of motivation textbooks. And since
Islam believes that human being consists of both body and soul, the Islamic perspective
on how a person is motivated by biological motives also differs compared to
contemporary Western psychology. Many of the motives shown by Muslims that cannot
be explained by contemporary theories of motivation (such as neglecting biological needs
for transcendental or spiritual reasons) can actually be explained if we believe on the
existence of the soul. In short, Islam believes in the existence of the human soul and its
influence in human motivation.
When providing “descriptions” about various primary and secondary motives,
there is not much in Western psychology that we need to Islamise (except a few aspects)
because the motives are real and supported by the Qur’ān and Hadith. But when
providing “explanation” about human motivation (i.e. providing theories), some of the
2
Western theories may need to be adapted by adding the element of soul in order to give a
more comprehensive picture of human motivation and to ensure no un-Islamic elements
that concerns `aqīdah (Islamic creed) or halāl/harām (the lawful and prohibited) are
taught to the students. The focus on the human soul is the single most important
difference between the Islamic concept of motivation and contemporary Western concept
of motivation. The following sub-topics concern the “description” of various primary
and secondary motives from Western psychological perspectives together with Islamic
perspectives.
PRIMARY MOTIVES
Hunger and Thirst
Modern psychology listed hunger, oxygen, sleep or rest, and sex as basic,
primary, biological, or physiological motives of human being (Edward, 1998; Reeve,
2005). Islam emphasises on fulfilling basic biological needs for the survival of human
life based on a hadith that mentioned the rights of every human to have shelter, clothes,
course bread (food), and water (narrated by al-Tirmidhi, Ahmad, and al-Hakim); and
another hadith that mentioned the concept of sharing basic biological needs such as
water, grass, and fire (narrated by Abu Dawud, Ahmad, and Ibn Majah). All these
elements mentioned by the Prophet actually help people fulfil their biological needs such
as hunger, thirst, oxygen, and sex. Recognising these basic biological needs should make
us Muslims recognise the concept of tawhīd (oneness of God) and hidāyah (divine
guidance). Two Qur’anic verses show the importance of relating fulfilling basic
biological needs with the concept of tawhīd and hidāyah. “Allah gave an example of a
city enjoying security, abundantly supplied with sustenance from every place, and yet
was ungrateful for the favours from Allah. So, Allah makes it taste hunger and fear like
garment because of the (evil) which (its people) made.” (QS 16: 112). And “Serve/pray
to the Lord of the House. Who provides them with food against hunger, and with
security against fear (danger).” (QS: 106: 3-4).
Obviously, neglecting the concept of the soul (as in Western psychology) will
make us forget to be thankful to Allah, and forget to follow the straight path to hidayah
since it is He who has helped us fulfil our basic biological needs. Another implication of
adding the element of soul in the study of motivation is Muslims will be able to give a
better explanation of certain types of behaviour and mental processes. For example, how
can we explain the motivation of Muslims in performing sawm (fasting) neglecting their
hunger and thirst? Why only few men among Talut’s armies were able to refrain from
drinking the stream water while most of them were not (QS 2: 249)? The level of iman in
the human soul clearly plays an important role here. It is because the iman in our souls
that motivates us to eat only halal food and refrain from eating what is haram except
during emergency (QS 6: 145).
3
Other Biological Needs
Apart from hunger and thirst, Islam also recognises human needs for oxygen (QS
6: 125), sleep or rest (QS: 17: 12; QS: 25: 47; QS 40: 61), and sex (QS 30: 21). In some
of the Qur’anic verses, Allah emphasises that those are part of human’s needs or motives.
Interestingly, in all these verses, Allah relates human needs with the concept of tawhid
and hidayah which is lacking in Western psychology. In terms of sexual motives,
Western psychology explains sexual motives as being influenced by the brain (limbic
system), external stimuli (sight, smell, and sound), social and sexual experience,
nutrition, emotions, age, thought, fantasies, culture, morality, etc. (Bancroft, 1995;
Edward, 1998; Reeve, 2005). From the Islamic perspective, we do not deny these
factors’ influence on sexual motive. What is lacking in Western psychology is the
understanding of al-halal wa al-haram (the lawful and the prohibited) in sexual
behaviour. For example, heterosexual behaviour outside legal marriage, homosexual
behaviour, and bisexual behaviour are considered haram in Islam. Even within legal
marriage, certain sexual behaviours are considered haram such as intercourse during
menstruation and anal sex. On the positive side, Islam considers fulfilling sexual needs
as part of `ibadah as the Prophet Muhammad SAW described it as sadaqah (charity) in
one of his hadiths (narrated by Muslim, Abu Dawud, & Ahmad) if it is fulfilled within a
legal marriage relationship.
SECONDARY MOTIVES
Exploration & Curiosity Motives
Exploration and curiosity are motives sparked by the new and unknown, and
directed towards a goal not more specific than simply “finding out” (Edward, 1998).
This exploration and curiosity motives are illustrated in the Qur’an when Prophet
Ibrahim AS felt uncomfortable with the fact that his father was praying to idols instead of
God. Starting from that, he started to feel curious about the concept of God and tried to
explore other possible ‘gods’ starting from the stars, the moon, and the sun. He finally
reached a firm conclusion that the real God is unobservable because observable things
can come and go. The True God, according to Prophet Ibrahim AS is the one who
creates all these objects, the stars, the moon and the sun (see QS 6: 74-79). This shows
that exploration and curiosity motives can lead to positive things such as determining
whether we accept iman (Islamic faith) or kufr (un-belief in the Islamic faith) i.e. iman as
a discrete variable.
Sometimes, exploration and curiosity motives may lead us to increase our iman (if
we are already a Muslim) i.e. iman as a continuous variable. The same prophet (Ibrahim
AS), with his exploration and curiosity motives, had asked Allah SWT to show him
“how” Allah resurrects the dead (note: he did not ask whether Allah “can” resurrect the
dead) (see QS 2: 260). When asked by Allah whether he has faith, Prophet Ibrahim AS
answered “yes”, but just to make his heart tranquil. In other words, he just wanted to
4
fulfil his curiosity. This is the motive that motivates all of us scientists to search for the
answers about the world. Of course, the same motives can lead to disaster. Prophet
Adam AS, being a human, made a mistake in following his exploration and curiosity
motives. Because of these motives, he ate the forbidden fruit and as a result, felt
ashamed of himself (QS: 20: 120-121). Since Prophet Adam AS has a pious soul and
because he asked for forgiveness, Allah gave him guidance (hidayah) and accepted his
repentance (tawbah) (QS: 20: 122). Human beings need guidance from Allah on which
areas are allowed to be explored and to be curious with. In this case, our souls, with our
various levels of iman, play an important role.
Manipulation & Control Motives
Manipulation and control is the motive that focuses on specific object that must
be touched, handled, played with, & felt before we are satisfied (Edward, 1998). Allah
SWT has described these motives when describing people who wanted to touch, handle,
and feel the Qur’an before accepting the hidayah. However, because their souls are never
sincere in accepting hidayah, they will never satisfy their manipulation and control needs.
In the Qur’an, it is mentioned that even if Allah descends upon them the Qur’an in
written form so that they can touch it, handle it, or feel it, they will not accept hidayah;
and even if Allah sent an angel to them, they will still not accept hidayah (QS 6: 7-9).
Apparently, their souls were not ready to accept hidayah.
Aggression Motives
Aggression is the behaviour that aimed at doing harm to others (Edward, 1998).
The question whether aggressive motive is inborn in human has been asked as early as
pre-creation of man by, surprisingly, the obedient and dutiful angels! The angels asked
Allah “Why do you want to appoint your khalifah (vicegerents) on earth who will make
damage and shed blood?” (QS 2: 30). Although our nature may carry the potential to
become aggressive, not all human beings will commit such acts. “Descend both of you
from the heaven. Some of you will become the enemies of the other…” (QS 20: 123).
The same verse continues saying that Allah will give guidance to human beings, and
those who follow His guidance will not lose his way or fall into misery. As it happened,
the first aggressive (or rather “transgressive”) behaviour was committed by the son of
Adam, Qabil on his brother, Habil of which the full story can be read in the Qur’an (QS
5: 27-31). Even though both of them lived in the blessed house of a prophet, obviously
their souls differ in accepting Allah’s commandment.
Achievement Motives
The need for achievement is the desire to excel relative to a particular standard of
excellence (Reeve, 2005). There are basically three categories of standard of excellence:
(1) competitions with a task, (2) competitions with the self, and (3) competitions against
others (Reeve, 2005). Certainly, Allah SWT demands that we excel in all three
categories. And what is perhaps the most basic achievement is the triumph of human’s
tranquil soul (al-nafs al-mutmainnah) over the blameworthy soul and evil-urging soul
(al-nafs al-lawwamah and al-nafs al-ammarah bi su’). The triumph of the tranquil soul
5
will ensure that a person desires what is good and refrains from all wrongdoings. This
achievement in a competition ‘within’ oneself would naturally entail in achievements in
other categories of standard of excellence. Although the need for achievement is a
secondary motive in Islam, the goal should be good, as mentioned in the Qur’an “… then
compete (to achieve) all that is good. Wherever you are, Allah will bring you
together…” (QS 2: 148). And only souls with high level of iman will compete to achieve
good rather than evil.
Affiliation Motive
The need for affiliation is the need to engage in warm, close and positive
relationships with others (Reeve, 2005). Allah created Hawa (Eve, in English) not only
for Adam AS to fulfil his sexual needs but also affiliation need. It is mentioned in the
Qur’an that it is natural to be affiliated to certain groups. “The believers, men and
women, are protectors one of another: they enjoin the good and forbid the evil: they
observe regular prayers, pay zakat, and obey Allah and His messenger…” (QS 9: 71). In
this case, `aqidah or iman is the basis of affiliation. The power of iman to build strong
affiliations among the believers in terms of love and kindness is mentioned by Prophet
Muhammad SAW as comparable to the whole human body which feels the pain even
when only one part of the body is inflicted with pain (narrated by Bukhari and Muslim).
Affiliation based on `aqidah is more powerful than affiliation based on kinship, race, and
nationality as seen in the War of Badr where the Muslims were motivated to challenge
their own relatives and tribes from Makkah in order to protect their `aqidah.
Spiritual Motive
One aspect of psychological motives that is rarely talked about in Western
psychology is spiritual motive. Allah said in the Qur’an that “facing our face” to the true
religion is a natural inclination (fitrah) even though many human beings do not do so (QS
30: 30). Al-Qurtubi in his tafsir (exegesis) (as cited in Najati, 1989) commented that
Allah has created the potential in every human being to understand the existence of
Allah, to believe in Him, and to believe in His Oneness. In another Qur’anic verse, it is
mentioned that before we were born, when all of us were in the spiritual world (`alam
arwah), all individuals took the oath testifying that Allah is our Lord (QS 7: 172). It is
this oath taken in the spiritual world – which we forget once we entered our
biological/animal bodies – that provides us with spiritual motive to find God, which is
needed to facilitate our roles as vicegerents (khalifah). It is this kind of natural
inclination of spiritual motive that has been mentioned in the hadith that all children are
born with fitrah. And it is their parents that make the child either a Jew, Christian, or a
Zoroaster (narrated by Bukhari, Muslim, Abu Dawud, and Tirmidhi).
Religious Motive
Finally, every Muslim, theoretically, has the desire to make sure his/her behaviour
is not against Islamic `aqidah, shari`ah, and akhlaq. Al-Qur’an has detailed out in many
verses about the behaviour and mental processes of the mu’minin (true believers), the
6
kuffar (unbelievers), and the munafiqin (hypocrites) starting from the early verses of
surah al-Baqarah (QS 2: 1-20). The motivation to receive hidayah (guidance) from Allah
drives a mu’min differently from those who reject truth such as the kuffar and the
munafiqin. A mu’min will always make sure that his/her motivated behaviour is not
against Islamic `aqidah, Islamic shari`ah, and Islamic akhlaq. Perhaps the usage of the
term “mu’min” shows that, not all Muslim posses the same level of iman and thus not all
of them will possess the same level of religious motivation.
EVALUATION OF CONTEMPORARY MOTIVATION THEORIES
FROM AN ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE
Instinct Theory
Instinct theory believes that all motives (in both human and animal) are
genetically programmed, impulsive and inflexible (Petri, 1996; Reeve, 2005). This
theory was the most prominent theory of motivation in the late 19th century and early 20th
century. Much of this was due to the enormous impact generated by Darwin’s theory of
evolution and its emphasis on biological determinism (Reeve, 2005). The theory
however, experienced a sharp decline because of its failure to explain learned behaviour,
which eventually became the focal point of the fast emerging and more sophisticated
psychological school of behaviourism.
Although Muslims also believe that most behaviour are learned (or else they will
be no such thing as halal/haram or paradise/hellfire), we also believe that some motives
come from our instinct provided to us by Allah SWT. One example of this instinct is the
spiritual motive already described in previous section. Another example of instinct
mentioned in the Qu’ran is the motherly instinct. Contrary to the Western perspective
that believes instinct is inflexible, Islam believes that the soul and iman moderate the
relationship between instinct and behaviour. Al-Qur’an describes the natural motherly
instinct of Prophet Musa AS’s mother, but because of her faith in Allah, she behaved in
an (observably) “un-motherly” way by drifting her son in the river. “And the heart of
Musa’s mother sank. She nearly told the secret about Musa AS, if We did not strengthen
her heart. So that she will be among those who believe (in Allah’s promise).” (QS 28:
10). The Qur’an also describes that although she let Musa AS go, her heart was full of
sorrow as what would naturally be a feeling of a mother. Allah has His own plan, and
consequently, He returned Musa AS back to his mother. “And We returned back Musa
AS to his mother, so that she will be happy and no longer sad.” (QS 28: 13). Clearly,
iman plays an important role in producing behaviour that is different from the real
motive. And it is because of lack of iman too that we find nowadays mothers abandoning
newborn babies, which is against their motherly instinct!
Drive-Reduction Theory
Drive-reduction theory states that motivated behaviour is aimed at reducing a
state of bodily tension or arousal and returning the organism back to homeostasis (Petri,
7
1996; Reeve, 2005). The term homeostasis refers to the state of balance and stability for
various bodily needs, which an organism needs in order to function effectively (Petri,
1996). Clark Hull’s theory, which was by far the most widely acclaimed drive theory,
was widely considered the first theory of motivation to contain predictive reliability and
validity (Petri, 1996; Reeve, 2005). In trying to incorporate the vital importance of both
genetic-biological and environmental factors, Hull developed a formula which proposes
that for any behaviour to occur, both habit or learning (environmental factor) and drive
(biological factor) must be present (Petri, 1996; Reeve, 2005).
It is this theory that divides various human motives into primary and secondary
motives where primary motives are unlearned, whereas secondary motives are learned.
These types of categorisation are not new in Islamic history because Ibn Taimiyyah had
already divided motives into two (Najati, 1992): (1) primary (al-awwaliyyah): which is
essential for human survival and (2) secondary (al-thanawiyyah): which is not related to
human survival. Ibn Taimiyyah and also al-Ghazali gave examples of primary motives as
the needs for food, water, healthy temperature, rest, and sex; whereas secondary motives
are other motives, which are similar with what has been mentioned in Western
Psychology (Najati, 1992).
Drive-reduction theory states that behaviour that reduces drive is reinforcing
whereas behaviour that does not reduce drive is not (Petri, 1996). This concept of drive
for maintaining balance is mentioned in the Qur’an. “It is He (Allah) who created you,
and then perfected your form, and made you in the state of balance” (QS 82: 7).
However, drive-reduction theory cannot fully explain behaviours that do not seem to
reduce drive such as the extraordinary bravery of the Sahabah (companions of the
Prophet SAW) who were involved in holy wars, and their extraordinary endurance in
performing prayers and rituals in extraordinary long periods. Again, the soul plays an
important role here in human motivation.
Arousal Theory
Arousal theory states that in order to perform effectively, human beings need an
optimal level of arousal (Petri, 1996; Edward, 1998). The theory was initially
developed as a result of dissatisfaction with the drive theory. Lindsay’s 1957
neurophysiological discovery laid down a strong claim of an arousal system in the brain
stem, a discovery that gave the arousal theory a far stronger physiological basis than its
predecessor (Reeve, 2005).
The arousal theory believes that when arousal increases, performance increases,
but up to a certain point only, in which case if arousal continues to increase (and creates
over-stimulation), performance will decrease. Perhaps that is why Prophet Muhammad
SAW forbade three Sahabahs from performing extreme levels of `ibadah (salat
throughout the night, sawm throughout the year, and complete abstinence from sex) by
stressing that he himself performs `ibadah at an optimal level rather than extreme level
(narrated by Malik).
8
However, arousal theory cannot explain why people participate in activities that
are extremely challenging, hence, overly stimulating such as extreme sports (Reeve,
2005). Just like we cannot understand why some Sahabahs such as Abdullah ibn Amru
wanted to perform sawm throughout the year. And although Prophet Muhammad SAW
suggested sawm for three days per month, Abdullah persistence in performing “extreme”
level of sawm led the Prophet to suggest the sawm of Prophet Dawud AS (fasting on
alternate days throughout the year). However, the Prophet still forbade him to perform
sawm throughout the year (narrated by Bukhari and Muslim). Perhaps the extreme love
for Allah in their souls made them extremely motivated. Because of this, Prophet
Muhammad SAW allowed a few Sahabahs to perform `ibadah at the above optimal
arousal level (but not to the most extreme). However, as mentioned in the previous
hadith about the three Sahabahs, the Prophet did not encourage this behaviour to all
Muslims, because a layperson may be motivated to achieve optimal arousal only, not at
the extreme level.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Theory
An intrinsic motive is a desire to perform a behaviour that stems from the
behaviour performed (“for the fun of it”), whereas extrinsic motive is a desire to perform
behaviour to obtain an external reward or avoid punishment (Reeve, 2005; Petri, 1996).
According to this theory, extrinsic rewards may reduce intrinsic motivation although
unexpected rewards do not necessarily reduce intrinsic motivation (Reeve, 2005).
Psychologists however, rather than declaring which motive is inherently better than the
other, have instead concluded that both have their own unique strengths and weaknesses
(Reeve, 2005)
As Muslims, do we perform `ibadah because of the joy of submitting to Allah
(intrinsic motive) or because of the consequences (reward in paradise or punishment in
the hellfire) that comes with it? The answer is, the higher the level of iman, the more
likely a person performs an `ibadah entirely for the sake of Allah. However, this does
not mean that performing `ibadah to gain entry to paradise and to avoid hellfire is not a
characteristic of a good mu’min. Al-Qaradhawi (1998) had argued that `ibadah
performed to gain paradise and to avoid hellfire is actually one of the characteristics of a
good believer and he mentioned several Qur’anic verses to support his arguments.
Besides, even from the Western perspective, motivation to gain paradise and to avoid
hellfire can still be considered more intrinsic than extrinsic because these are
unobservable situations and are delayed after death. Such behaviours are more
acceptable than performing `ibadah for worldly extrinsic rewards, which can lead to
psycho-spiritual diseases such as riya’ (pride) and takabbur (arrogance).
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
This famous theory postulates that needs are satisfied based on a hierarchy from
the lowest to the highest. The needs, in order from the lowest to the highest, are:
physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualisation needs. This theory, however,
has been criticised because of its lack of explanatory power and insistence on fulfilment
9
of needs according to its proposed sequence (Reeve, 2005; Petri, 1996). For example,
this theory cannot explain the neglect of physiological needs (life) in order to gain
shahadah (martyrdom) in war (which may actually be considered as achieving selfactualisation).
It is interesting to note that fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) has always considered
human needs based on a hierarchy put forth by `ulama’ (religious scholars) such as alShatibi and al-Ghazali who constructed the study of Maqasid al-Shari`iyyah (the
objectives of Islamic law). It starts from the lowest need of al-daruriyyat (the essential
needs), al-hajjiyyat (the complimentary needs), and al-tahsiniyyat (the embellishment
needs) (Kamali, 1991). Kamali (1991) had provided the definition for all these three
terms. The daruriyyat needs are those on which the lives of people depend, and whose
neglect leads to total disruption and chaos. The hajjiyyat needs are interests whose
neglect leads to hardship in the life of the community although not to its total collapse.
Finally, the tahsiniyyat needs are interests whose realisation leads to improvement and to
attainment of that which is desirable.
The daruriyyat needs are further divided into five needs that are to be protected in
order of importance: (1) the religion or al-din, (2) the life or al-nafs, (3) the intellect or
`aql, (4) the lineage or al-nasl, and (5) the property or al-mal. The obvious difference
between maqasid al-shar`iyyah and Maslow’s theory, in terms of content, is the inclusion
of religion as a basic human need. This inclusion enables us to explain why some
Sahabahs are motivated to go for jihad fi sabilillah (war in the path of Allah) because
religion is prioritised over life. The beauty of the theory of maqasid as-shar`iyyah is its
flexibility in interpretation compared to Maslow’s theory. For example, in one occasion,
a sahabah by the name of Ammar ibn Yasir became so depressed after reciting a kufr
statement (a statement declaring un-belief in Islam) out of fear that he would be killed,
hence, prioritising life over religion. But Prophet Muhammad SAW, upon knowing that
iman is still in Ammar’s heart, said that his iman is intact and it is permissible to say a
kufr statement in order to save his life (protection of life is fulfilled, and so does the
protection of religion in his soul as well). Thus, this again shows the importance of the
soul in explaining human motivation.
10
SUGGESTED ISLAMIC MODEL OF MOTIVATION
In the past 30 years, there have been several attempts by Muslim psychologists to
propose an Islamic model of motivation. Abdul Shakoor (1978) proposed an Islamic
concept of psycho-spiritual motivation, built from the foundations of tawhid. Zainuddin
(1998), on the other hand, attempted to explain human motivation exclusively from the
Sufi (Islamic mysticism) tradition. While the most recent and most comprehensive
attempt so far was presented by Alawneh (1999), who proposed an Islamic paradigm of
motivation based on the understanding of man’s purpose of creation; which he later
associated with basic Islamic concepts such as taqwa, iman, khalifah and tawbah, and the
interrelatedness of different types of motivation, as well as a proposed model of taqwa
motivation.
These attempts have indeed contributed to the search for a more comprehensive
Islamic perspective of motivation. However, it is quite unfortunate that all of them made
little attempt to integrate Western theories of motivation in the Islamic models. Although
there are points of disagreement – namely on the influence of the human soul – between
the Western and Islamic perspectives, there are definitely many areas where both
perspectives are in consonance. These consonant areas however, do not belie the fact that
there is a fundamental difference between both perspectives, which ultimately points to
the call for Muslim psychologists to propose an alternative Islamic model of motivation.
Reviews on various theories mentioned in the previous section shows that every
Western theory has some truth and is supported by Islam but has limitation in giving a
full picture of human motivation. Psychology should take into consideration all these
theories and incorporate Islamic perspectives of motivation in order to give an
alternative, more comprehensive look of human motivation. The model of human
motivation illustrated in Figure 1, is not developed based on past cumulative research. It
is rather a proposed loose model to guide future research and to make sense of
unexplained factors found in various Western theories. The model states that different
theories may explain motivated behaviour at different stages. In all these stages, soul
plays a moderating role in increasing or lowering motivation, or to be involved in
different types of motivated behaviours.
ISLAMICALLY-ORIENTED APPLICATION OF MOTIVATION PRINCIPLES
This section will try to illustrate the behaviour of the Sahabahs during the era of
Prophet Muhammad SAW particularly the motivation to participate in Jihad which the
readers can refer to any credible book on the Biography of the Prophet. This is to inspire
modern Muslim psychologists to use the same principles in motivating contemporary
Muslims. Although the true meaning of Jihad is struggle towards anything which is
good, for this particular application, Jihad is operationally defined as involvement in war
to defend and/or spread the message of Islam. However, in certain occasions, we may
use the word “Jihad” in its general meaning, in which case we will use quotation marks
to differentiate between the two.
11
Figure 1. The Islamic Model of Motivation
Theories
Questions
Moderator
Is it one of the instincts inborn in me?
Instinct
yes
Drive-reduction
Do I feel uncomfortable and need to
move to the balanced state?
yes
Arousal
Do I feel aroused to do it?
yes
Intrinsic/Extrinsic
Soul
Do I enjoy doing it? Do I enjoy the
consequences of doing it?
yes
Need hierarchy
Have I fulfilled the lower level needs?
yes
Religious
Does it fulfill my role as servant and
vicegerent of Allah?
yes
Current State of Motivation
1. Instinct Theory: Since there is already an instinct for aggressive behaviour inborn in
every man, the Sahabahs were potentially prepared to perform Jihad when required.
Khabab ibn al-Arat, for example, was so motivated to declare war against the
Mushrikin (unbelievers) of Makkah during the Makkan period but Prophet
Muhammad SAW forbade him from doing so emphasising more on building iman as
the priority of “Jihad” in Makkah. Only during the Medinan period and only when
provoked by the Mushrikin in Makkah, in which Islam was at stake that Prophet
Muhammad SAW declared the War of Badr. Although the Muslims during the
Makkan period were prepared for war based on the instinct theory, the education of
iman provided by the Prophet SAW prevented them from behaving aggressively
12
against the Mushrikin in Makkah. During the Medinan period, when the timing was
suitable, their aggressive potentials were manifested during the Wars of Badr, Uhud,
Khandaq, etc.
2. Drive-reduction Theory: The Sahabahs were a group of peace-loving people. They
were trained to focus on “Jihad” to strengthen their `aqidah, `ibadah, and akhlaq.
They were also trained on “Jihad” to be patient under the oppressive regime of the
Mushrikin in Makkah. Although the drive-reduction theory would predict that the
Sahabahs would be motivated to reduce the tensed living situation in Makkah by
declaring war against their enemy, they were not actually motivated to do so because
of their iman to Allah and the Prophet’s instruction. However, when they attained the
peace of having their own sovereign state in Medina, any act by the Mushrikin in
Makkah that could add to the tensed situation made them motivated to reduce it.
With the permission from Allah and His Prophet SAW, they were involved in wars
such as in Badr and Uhud.
3. Arousal Theory: The Arab people in the Jahiliyyah (ignorance) period had been
involved in wars between tribes even for trivial reasons. War was a culture to them.
And involving in war would naturally fulfil the needs of the Sahabahs to obtain
optimum arousal. But they were not involved in any war during the Makkan period
because the Prophet SAW had trained their souls to focus on the “Jihad” of building
iman and knowledge, and perfecting their `ibadah and akhlaq. During the Medinan
period, however, after being well-equipped with iman, `ibadah, and akhlaq, the
Sahabahs were now able to fulfil their desire to obtain optimum arousal. Their souls
were mature enough to guide them so as not to kill excessively without taking into
consideration the rules and regulations of Jihad in Islam. The necessity to fight the
enemy in Jihad is now motivated by sincere intention to safeguard Islam; their own
religion that they believe is the truth.
4. Intrinsic Motivation Theory: The Arabs during the Jahiliyyah period could have been
extrinsically motivated to fight in wars because of the ghanimah (war booty) or
intrinsically because of the glory. In that sense, it is understandable that the Sahabahs
who had just converted to Islam were motivated to fight in a war with the Mushrikin
in Makkah. They were not short of brave and skilled warriors like Hamzah ibn `Abd
al-Muttalib and `Umar al-Khattab. However, it was perhaps more intrinsically
motivating for them to focus on increasing their `aqidah, `ibadah, and akhlaq. But
once their souls were strong and well-prepared in terms of iman and ukhuwwah (spirit
of brotherhood) in Medina, they became motivated to fight not primarily because of
war booty, jealousy, revenge or glory, but because of the intrinsic motive to defend
and spread Islam, or attain shahadah (martyrdom).
5. Need Hierarchy Theory: The motivated behaviour of the Sahabahs in neglecting their
physiological needs (life) in order to fulfil their self-actualising needs (jihad) cannot
be explained by Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. However, the hierarchy of needs is
still relevant, but should be explained instead using the principles of Maqasid alShar`iyyah. Consistent with the training of `aqidah, `ibadah, and akhlaq in Makkah
13
and Medina, the Sahabahs had naturally prioritised religion over life, which is the
correct hierarchy of needs for Muslims.
6. Religious needs: At present, there is no established theory on religious motive.
However, once all the variables mentioned in various theories are fulfilled (taking
into consideration the moderating factor of the soul and level of iman), a Muslim
would automatically ask him/herself whether his/her motivated behaviour is fulfilling
the roles and responsibilities of servants and vicegerents of Allah by ensuring the
behaviour is in line with the correct understanding of Islamic `aqidah, shari`ah, and
akhlaq. Only when a Muslim overcomes all these hurdles, a truly Islamic motivation
is exemplified. Naturally, as Muslims, the rulings in Islamic `aqidah, shari`ah, and
akhlaq should be powerful enough as a variable to motivate their behaviours. In
reality, as we can see from contemporary Muslims’ behaviour, this variable is
moderated by the souls and their level of iman.
The above application shows the importance of educating all Muslims – youth,
new converts, and ‘reborn’ Muslims, etc – the correct understanding of `aqidah, `ibadah,
and akhlaq, so that all their drives and motives can be regulated to motivate Islamically
accepted behaviour.
CONCLUSION
The proposed Islamic model of motivation and the illustrated application are
based on an ideal motivated behaviour. If we allow ourselves to be influenced by
behaviours in reality, we may be drifted, because reality changes. Hence, it is far better
to strive for the ideal and change the reality, just like how Prophet Muhammad SAW had
changed the motivated behaviour of the Sahabahs and created the most ideal Islamic
generation humanity has ever known.
Studying basic psychological principles such as motivation can help us increase
our knowledge and iman, and fulfil our role as servants (`abid) of Allah by understanding
human behaviour and mental processes. Applying basic psychological principles, on the
other hand, can help us fulfil our role as vicegerents (khalifah) by performing da`wah or
tarbiyyah to solve human problems by controlling human behaviour and mental
processes. Indeed, studying and applying psychology of motivation as a Muslim is a
religious experience and will be receiving, God-willing, immense rewards from Allah.
REFERENCES
Abdul Shakoor, M. A. (1978). Towards an Islamic motivational psychology on
psychology and Islam. Paper presented at the Symposium on Psychology and
Islam, University of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Alawneh, S.F. (1999). Human motivation: An Islamic perspective. The American
Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, 15:4, 19-39.
14
Bancroft, J. (1995). Sexual motivation and behaviour. In Parkinson, B. & Colman, A. M.
(Eds.) Emotion and motivation. (pp.58-75). London: Longman.
Edward, D. C. (1998). Motivation and emotion: Evolutionary, physiological, cognitive
and social influences. London: Sage Publications.
Kamali, M. H. (1991). Principles of Islamic jurisprudence. Cambridge, UK: The
Islamic Text Society.
Mahmud, M. M. (1984). `Ilm al-nafs al-mu`asir fi daw’ al-Islam. Jeddah: Dar alShuruq.
Najati, M. U. (1989). Al-hadith al-nabawiyy wa `ilm al-nafs. Beirut: Dar al-Shuruq.
Najati, M. U. (1993). Al-dirasat al-nafsaniyyah `inda al-`ulama’ al-muslimin. Beirut:
Dar al-Shuruq.
Najati, M. U. (2001). Jiwa manusia: Dalam sorotan al-Qur’an (Malay translation of the
Arabic book Al-Qur’an wa `ilm al-nafs). Jakarta, Indonesia: CV Cendekia Sentra
al-Qardhawi, Y. (1998). Ibadah dalam Islam (Malay translation of the Arabic book Al`ibadah fi al-Islam). Surabaya, Indonesia: Pt Bina Ilmu.
Reeve, J.M. (2005). Understanding motivation and emotion.4thed. New York: John
Wiley & Sons Inc.
Petri, H.L. (1996). Motivation: Theory, research and applications (4th Ed,). Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth.
Zainuddin, R. (1997) Human motivation: In the Sufi tradition. In Husain, M.G. (Ed)
Psychology and Islamic society in Islamic perspective (pp.83-89). Kuala Lumpur:
S.Abdul Majeed.
15