EMOTION AND EMOTION REGULATION
Maya GRATIER and Lourdes DE LEON
a. Quote:
…I was convinced that he [my first-born child] understood a smile and received pleasure
from seeing one, answering it by another, at much too early an age to have learnt
anything by experience. When this child was about four months old, I made in his
presence many odd noises and strange grimaces, and tried to look savage; but the noises,
if not too loud, as well as the grimaces, were all taken as good jokes; and I attributed this
at the time to their being preceded or accompanied by smiles. When five months old, he
seemed to understand a compassionate expression and tone of voice. When a few days
over six months old, his nurse pretended to cry, and I saw that his face instantly assumed
a melancholy expression, with the corners of the mouth strongly depressed; now this
child could rarely have seen any other child crying, and never a grown-up person crying,
and I should doubt whether at so early an age he could have reasoned on the subject.
Therefore it seems to me that an innate feeling must have told him that the pretended
crying of his nurse expressed grief; and this through the instinct of sympathy excited grief
in him.
Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, chap. XIV
b. Description of the universal task implicit in the domain, including biological
and evolutionary foundations.
- Darwin’s ‘The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals’
- The body and emotional expression (Ekman on the face, Scherer on the voice)
- Emotion, expression and inhibition (James-Lange, Dewey, Nussbaum)
- The neurobiolology and physiology of emotion (Damasio, Ledoux, Panskepp)
- Present theories of emotion and moral development (Eisenberg).
- Pose the debate concerning theories of moral development (from psychological
and cultural anthropological perspectives).
c.
The individualistic pathway
Critique of psychological emotion theory: emotions are defined as experiences
felt by individuals from within, one mind-brain perspective, emotions need
release, freedom of expression (self expression), ownership of emotion, labelling
of emotion. Universalist theories of emotional development (Izard, Sroufe,
Campos, Ekman).
Languages of emotion e.g. metaphors, nouncs vs. verbs (state vs. process)
(Wierzbicka). In Tzotzil “my heart is heated”.
Psychologists dichotomize emotions into basic and social emotions (basic and
higher) which correspond to universal and culture-specific emotions.
Move to the perceptive whereby emotions are primarily interpersonal, social and
cultural. Stern’s vitality affects or contours (the temporal aspect of emotion)
Human is not intrinsically an individual.
Primary function of emotions are to affiliate with others and to learn and partake
in the practices that enable us to share meaning.
The development of the self-conscious emotion: Pride and shame, embarassment,
praise, guilt. (Michael Lewis, Eisenberg, Reddy)
Emotions and self: expression and inhibition – The case of anger and conflict
(Cole, de Leon, Briggs). Expression of emotion is encouraged to assert rights,
personality traits, identity.
Emotion regulation and nonverbal communication: expressing and sensing
(anticipation), e.g. in Bali people hide or cover up emotions that might be
considered negative and in India and Japan (Clancy, Markus and Kitayama)
people expect other to sense their emotions before they express them.
The socialization of emotion: Evidence that it starts at birth
Modes of interaction, soothing, caregiving reflect views that infants physically
express discrete emotions that may be appraised by others.
e.g. physical closeness, vocal overlap, modes of soothing and sensing emotions
(Gratier). In infancy, interactions are based on a turn-taking, question and answer
format, crying is not only tolerated but encouraged in some cultures, infant’s
affective expressions are labelled and ascribed to independent intentional self
(Markus and Kitayama, Kurtz).
Teasing routines: social control, anger and shame (de Leon, Briggs, Schiefflin,
Ochs, Sperry and Miller)
Moral development
Cultural level:
Institutional level:
Psychological level:
Socialization practices:
Behavioral level:
d. The interdependent pathway
The expression of emotion has a social dimension: to balance the social order
Individual as mediator of collective emotion e.g. to avoid direct expression of
emotion because the social order doesn’t permit it.
Emotions have a moral value e.g. shame reflects the moral values of the society
(transgression of a norm).
The collective expression of emotion through rituals and ceremonies
Interpersonal emotions and sumpathy: the emotion is perceived as a binding force
rather than the expression of individual motivations.
e. Effects of social change and interactions between the pathways on
socialization and development.
f. Policy and practice
g. Summary with bullet points
h. Photographs or other illustrations that would illustrate research and theory
i. Some figures and tables
Bibliography
Besnier, N. (1995). The Politics of Emotion in Nukulaelae Gossip. In J. A. Russell, J. M.
Fernandez-Dols, A. S. Manstead, & J. C. Wellenkamp (Eds.), Everyday Conceptions of
Emotion (221-240), Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Cole, P. M.; Bruschi, C. J.; Tamang, B. L. (2002). Cultural differences in children's
emotional reactions to difficult situations. Child Development, Vol 73(3), pp. 983-996.
Damasio, A.R. Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain. New York:
Avon Books, 1994.
Damasio, A.R. The Feeling of What Happens: Body, Emotion and the Making of
Consciousness. London: Heinemann, 2000.
Darwin, C. (1871). The Expression of Emotions in Animals and Man. London: John
Murray.
Doi, T. (1973). The anatomy of dependence. Tokyo: Kodansha.
Ekman, P. (1993). Facial expression and emotion. American Psychologist, 48, 384-392.
Ekman, P. (1994). Strong evidence for universals in facial expressions: A reply to
Russell's mistaken critique. Psychological Bulletin, 15, 268-287.
Ekman, P., & Cole, J. (Ed.). (1972). Universals and cultural differences in facial
expressions of emotion. University of Nebraska Press.
Emde, R. N., Johnson, W. F., & Easterbrooks, M. A. (1987). The do's and don'ts of early
moral development: Psychoanalytic tradition and current research. In J. Kagan & S.
Lamb (Eds.), The emergence of morality in young children (245-276), Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Friedlmeier, W.; Trommsdorff, G. (1999). Emotion regulation in early childhood: A
cross-cultural comparison between German and Japanese toddlers. Journal of CrossCultural Psychology. Vol 30(6), pp.684-711.
Harre, R. (Ed.). (1986). The Social Construction of Emotions. Oxford: Blackwell.
Harwood, R. L., Scholmerich, A., & Schulze, P. A. (2000). Homogeneity and
heterogeneity in cultural belief systems. In S. Harkness, C. Raeff, & C. M. Super (Eds.),
Variability in the social construction of the child (41-58), San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Izard, C. (1994). Innate and universal facial expressions: Evidence from developmental
and cross-country research. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 288-299.
Johnstone, T. and Scherer, K.R. (2000) . Vocal communication of emotion. In M. Lewis
and J. Haviland (eds) Handbook of Emotion (2nd Edition). New York: Guilford.
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. Special Issue:. Vol 32(1), pp. 76-92
Juslin, P.N. & Sloboda, J. A. (Eds)(2001). Music and emotion: Theory and research.
Series in affective science. London, Oxford University Press.
Kitayama, S., Markus, H. R., & Kurokawa, M. (2000). Culture, emotion, and well-being:
Good feelings in Japan and the United States. Cognition and Emotion, 14, 93-124.
Kupperbusch, C.; Matsumoto, D.; Kooken, K.; Loewinger, S.; Uchida, H.; Wilson-Cohn,
C.; Yrizarry, N. (1999). Cultural influences on nonverbal expressions of emotion.
Philippot, P.(Ed); Feldman, R. S. (Ed); Coates, E.J. The social context of nonverbal
behavior. Studies in emotion and social interaction. Cambridge University Press.
Le Doux, J. (1996). The Emotional Brain: The Mysterious Underpinnings of Emotional
Life. New York: Touchstone.
Levy, R. 1984. "Emotion, knowing, and culture". In R. Shweder and R. Levine (eds),
214-237.
Lewis, M. (1993). Self-conscious emotions: Embarrassment, pride, shame, and guilt. In
M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (563-573), New York:
Guilford Press.
Lutz, C., & White, G. (1986). The anthropology of emotions. Annual Review of
Anthropology, 15, 405-436.
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition,
motivation, and emotion. Psychological Review, 98, 224-253.
Matsumoto, D.; Consolacion, T.; Yamada, H.; Suzuki, R.; Franklin, B.; Paul, S.; Ray, R.;
Uchida,H. (2002). American-Japanese cultural differences in judgements of emotional
expressions of different intensities. Cognition & Emotion, vol 16(6), pp. 721-747
Menon, U. (2000). Analyzing emotions as culturally constructed scripts. Culture &
Psychology, Vol 6(1), pp. 40-50.
Menon, U. and Shweder, R. 1994. "Kali's Tongue: Cultural psychology and the power of
shame in Orissa, India". In S. Kitayama and H. Markus (eds), 241-284.
Morelli, G. A., Rogoff, B., Oppenheim, D., & Goldsmith, D. (1992). Cultural variation in
infants' sleeping arrangements: Questions of independence. Developmental Psychology,
28, 604-613.
Murray, L., & Trevarthen, C. (1985). Emotional regulation of interactions between twomonth-olds and their mothers. In T. M. Field & N. A. Fox (Eds.), Social perception in
infants (177-197), Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Panskepp, J. (1998). Affective Neuroscience: The foundations of human and animal
emotions. New York: Oxford University Press.
Reddy, V. (2000). Coyness in early infancy. Developmental Science, 3(2).
Rosaldo, M. 1984. "Toward an anthropology of self and feeling". In R. Shweder and R.
LeVine (eds), 137-157.
Rothbaum, F., Weisz, J., Pott, M., Miyake, K., & Morelli, G. (2000). Attachment and
culture: Security in the United States and Japan. American Psychologist, 55, 1093-1104.
Saarni, C. (1999). The development of emotional competence. New York: Guilford Press.
Saarni, C., Mumme, D. L., & Campos, J. J. (1998). Emotional development: Action,
communication, and understanding. In W. Damon & N. Eisenberg (Eds.), Handbook of
child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (5th ed New
York: Wiley.
Scherer, K. R; Banse, R.; Wallbott, H.G. (2001). Emotion inferences from vocal
expression correlate across languages and cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural
Psychology, 32, 76-92.
Schimmack, U.; Oishi, S.; Diener, E. (2002) . Cultural influences on the relation between
pleasant emotions and unpleasant emotions: Asian dialectic philosophies or
individualism-collectivism? Cognition & Emotion, vol 16(6), pp. 705-719
Schore, A. N. (1994). Affect regulation and the origin of the self: The neurobiology of
emotional development. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Semin, G.R.; Goerts, C.A.; Nandram, S.; Semin-Goossens, A. (2002). Cultural
perspectives on the linguistic representation of emotion and emotion events. Cognition &
Emotion. Vol 16(1), pp. 11-28
Shinobu, K. & Markus,H.R. et al (1994). Emotion and culture: Empirical studies of
mutual influence. Washington, DC, USA: American Psychological Association
Siegel, D. J. (1998). The developing mind: Toward a neurobiology of interpersonal
experience.
Sinha, D., & Tripathi, R. C. (1994). Individualism in a collective culture: A case of coexistence of opposites. In U. Kim, H. Triandis, C. Kagitcibasi, S. Choi, & G. Yoon
(Eds.), Individualism and collectivism: Query, method, and application. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
Sorensen, E. R. (1975). Culture and the expression of emotion. In T. R. Williams (Ed.),
Psychological anthropology (361-372), Chicago: Aldine.
Stern, D.N. (1985). The interpersonal world of the infant. New York: Basic Books.
Stern, D. N. (1999). Vitality contours: The temporal contouring of feelings as a basic unit
for constructing the infant’s social experience. In Rochat, P. (ed.), Early Social
Cognition: Understanding others in the first months of life. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Super, C. M., & Harkness, S. (1993). The developmental niche: A conceptualization at
the interface of child and culture. In R. A. Pierce, & M. A. Black (Eds.), Life-span
development: A diversity reader (61-77), Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.
Thompson, Ross A; Easterbrooks, M Ann; Padilla-Walker, Laura M. (2003). Social and
emotional development in infancy. In Lerner, Richard M.; Easterbrooks, M. A. ; et al
(Eds). Handbook of psychology: Developmental psychology, Vol. 6 (pp.91-112). New
York, NY, US: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. xxi, 666 pp.
Tomasello, M., Kruger, A. C., & Ratner, H. H. (1993). Cultural learning. Behavioral and
Brain Sciences, 16, 495-511.
Trevarthen, C. (2001). Intrinsic motives for companionship in understanding: Their
origin, development and significance for infant mental health. Infant Mental Health
Journal, 22, 95-131.
Trevarthen, C. (1993). The function of emotions in early infant communication and
development. In J. Nadel & L. Camaioni (eds.), New perspectives in early communicative
development. New York: Routledge.
Turiel, E. (1997). The development of morality. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), Handbook of child
psychology (5th ed, 3, 863-932). New York: Wiley.
van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Sagi, A. (1999). Cross-cultural patterns of attachment:
Universal and contextual dimensions. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of
attachment (713-735), New York: Guilford Press.
Wierzbicka, A. (1995). Emotion and facial expression: A semantic perspective. Culture
& Psychology, 1, 227-258.