References
Appel, K. W., A. J. Riordan, and T. A. Holley, 2005: An objective climatology of
Carolina coastal fronts. Wea. Forecasting, 20, 439–455.
Atallah, E. H., and L. F. Bosart, 2003: The extratropical transition and precipitation
distribution of Hurricane Floyd (1999). Mon. Wea. Rev., 131, 1063–1081.
Atallah, E., L. F. Bosart, and A. R. Aiyyer, 2007: Precipitation distribution associated
with landfalling tropical cyclones over the eastern United States. Mon. Wea.
Rev., 135, 2185–2206.
Banacos, B. C, and D. M. Schultz, 2005: The use of moisture flux convergence in
forecasting convective initiation: Historical and operational perspectives. Wea.
Forecasting, 20, 351–366.
Barros, A. P., and R. J. Kuligowski, 1998: Orographic effects during a severe
wintertime rainstorm in the Appalachian mountains. Mon. Wea. Rev., 126, 2648–
2672.
Beard, K. V., and H. T. Ochs III, 1993: Warm-rain initiation: An overview of
microphysical mechanisms. J. Appl. Meteor., 32, 608–625.
Bell, G. D., and L. F. Bosart, 1988: Appalachian cold-air damming. Mon. Wea. Rev.,
116, 137–161.
Blanchard, D. O., 1998: Assessing the vertical distribution of convective available
potential energy. Wea. Forecasting, 13, 870–877.
Bluestein, H. B., 1992: Synoptic–Dynamic Meteorology in Midlatitudes, Volume I:
Principles of Kinematics and Dynamics. Oxford University Press, 431 pp.
Bosart, L. F., 1975: New England coastal frontogenesis. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc.,
101, 957–978.
——, and F. H. Carr, 1978: A case study of excessive rainfall centered around
Wellsville, New York, 20-21 June 1972. Mon. Wea. Rev., 106, 348–362.
——, and D. B. Dean, 1991: The Agnes rainstorm of June 1972: Surface feature
evolution culminating in inland storm redevelopment. Wea. and Forecasting, 6,
515–537.
Bradley, A. A., and J. A. Smith, 1994: The hydrometeorological environment of
extreme rainstorms in the southern plains of the United States. J. Appl. Meteor.,
33, 1418–1431.
191
Brooks, H. E., and D. J. Stensrud, 2000: Climatology of heavy rain events in the
United States from hourly precipitation observations. Mon. Wea. Rev., 128,
1194–1201.
Bryan, G. H., and M. J. Fritsch, 2000: Moist absolute instability: The sixth static
stability state. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 81, 1207–1230.
Chen, S. S., J. A. Knaff, and F. D. Marks Jr., 2006: Effects of vertical wind shear and
storm motion on tropical rainfall asymmetries deduced from TRMM. Mon. Wea.
Rev., 134, 3190–3208.
Colle, B. A., 2003: Numerical simulations of the extratropical transition of Floyd
(1999): Structural evolution and responsible mechanisms for the heavy rainfall
over the northeast United States. Mon. Wea. Rev., 131, 2905–2926.
Colman, B. R., 1990a: Thunderstorms above frontal surfaces in environments
without positive CAPE. Part I: A Climatology. Mon. Wea. Rev., 118, 1103–1121.
Colman, B. R., 1990b: Thunderstorms above frontal surfaces in environments
without positive CAPE. Part II: Organization and instability mechanisms. Mon.
Wea. Rev., 118, 1123–1144.
DeLuca, D. P., 2004: The distribution of precipitation over the Northeast
accompanying landfalling and transitioning tropical cyclones. M.S. thesis,
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University at Albany, State
University of New York, 177 pp.
Dial, G. L., and J. P. Racy, 2004: Forecasting short-term convective mode and
evolution for severe storms initiated along synoptic boundaries. Preprints, 22d
Conf. on Severe Local Storms, Hyannis, MA, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 11A.2.
DiMego, G. J., and L. F. Bosart, 1982a: The transformation of tropical storm Agnes
into an extratropical cyclone. Part I: The observed fields and vertical motion
computations. Mon. Wea. Rev., 110, 385–411.
——, and ——, 1982b: The transformation of tropical storm Agnes into an
extratropical cyclone. Part II: Moisture, vorticity and kinetic energy budgets. Mon.
Wea. Rev., 110, 412–433.
Doswell, C. A., III, 1987: The distinction between large-scale and mesoscale
contribution to severe convection: A case study example. Wea. Forecasting, 2,
3–16.
——, H. E. Brooks, and R. A. Maddox, 1996: Flash flood forecasting: An ingredientsbased methodology. Wea. Forecasting, 11, 560–581.
192
Edwards, R., and A. E. Pietrycha, 2006: Archetypes for surface baroclinic
boundaries influencing tropical cyclone tornado occurrence. Preprints, 23d Conf.
on Severe Local Storms, St. Louis, MO, Amer. Meteor. Soc., P 8.2.
Elsner, J. B., W. H. Drag, and J. K. Last, 1989: Synoptic weather patterns
associated with the Milwaukee, Wisconsin flash flood of 6 August 1986. Wea.
Forecasting, 4, 537–554.
Emanuel, K. A, 1985: Frontal circulations in the presence of small moist symmetric
stability. J. Atmos. Sci., 42, 1062–1071.
Environmental Modeling Center, Global Climate and Weather Modeling Branch,
2003: The GFS atmospheric model. NCEP office note 442, 14 pp. [Available
online at http://www.emc.ncep.noaa.gov/officenotes/newernotes/on442.pdf.].
Evans, J. L., and R. E. Hart, 2003: Objective indicators of the life cycle evolution of
extratropical transition for Atlantic tropical cyclones. Mon. Wea. Rev., 131, 909–
925.
Foley, G. R., and B. N. Hanstrum, 1994: The capture of tropical cyclones by cold
fronts off the west coast of Australia. Wea. Forecasting, 9, 577–592.
Fovell, R. G., 2005: Convective initiation ahead of the sea-breeze front. Mon. Wea.
Rev., 133, 264–278.
Frank, W. M., 1977: The structure and energetics of the tropical cyclone I. Storm
structure. Mon. Wea. Rev., 105, 1119–1135.
Franklin, J. L., L. A. Avila, J. L. Beven, M. B. Lawrence, R. J. Pasch, and S. R.
Stewart, 2001: Atlantic hurricane season of 2000. Mon. Wea. Rev., 129, 3037–
3056.
Fritsch, J. M., J. Kapolka, and P. A. Hirschberg, 1992: The effects of subcloud-layer
diabatic processes on cold-air damming. J. Atmos. Sci., 49, 49–70.
Fritsch, J. M, and Coauthors, 1998: Quantitative precipitation forecasting: Report of
the Eighth Prospectus Development Team, U.S. Weather Research Program.
Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 79, 285–299.
Funk, T. W., 1991: Forecasting techniques utilized by the forecast branch of the
National Meteorological Center during a major convective rainfall event. Wea.
Forecasting, 6, 548–564.
——, 2003: Heavy convective rainfall forecasting: A comprehensive look at
parameters, processes, patterns, and rules of thumb. Training document,
193
National Weather Service weather forecast office, Louisville, KY. [Available
online at http://www.crh.noaa.gov/lmk/soo/docu/.].
Giordano, L. A., and J. M. Fritsch, 1991: Strong tornadoes and flash-flood-producing
rainstorms during the warm season in the mid-Atlantic region. Wea. Forecasting,
6, 437–455.
Goldenberg, S. B., C. W. Landsea, A. M. Mestas-Nunez, and W. M. Gray, 2001: The
recent increase in Atlantic hurricane activity: Causes and implications. Science,
293, 474–479.
Grassotti, C., R. N. Hoffman, E. R. Vivoni, and D. Entekhabi, 2003: Multipletimescale intercomparison of two radar products and rain gauge observations
over the Arkansas–Red River Basin. Wea. Forecasting, 18, 1207–1229.
Harr, P. A., and R. L. Elsberry, 2000: Extratropical transition of tropical cyclones over
the western north Pacific. Part I: Evolution of structural characteristics during the
transition process. Mon. Wea. Rev., 128, 2613–2633.
——, ——, and T. F. Hogan, 2000: Extratropical transition of tropical cyclones over
the western north Pacific. Part II: The impact of midlatitude circulation
characteristics. Mon. Wea. Rev., 128, 2634–2653.
Heideman, K. F., and J. M. Fritsch, 1988: Forcing mechanisms and other
characteristics of significant summertime precipitation. Wea. Forecasting, 3, 115–
130.
Henry, B., 1988: The Skew T–Logp Diagram. NOAA/National Weather Service
training module, 68 pp. [Available from the National Weather Service Training
Center, 7220 N.W. 101st Terr., Kansas City, MO 64153.].
Higgins, R. W., W. Shi, E. Yarosh, and R. Joyce, 2000: Improved United States
Precipitation Quality Control System and Analysis. [Available online at
http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/research_papers/ncep_cpc_atlas/7/toc.html.].
Holton, J. R, 2004: Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology. 4th ed. Elsevier Academic
Press, 535 pp.
Hoskins, B. J., M. E. McIntyre, and A. W. Robertson, 1985: On the use and
significance of isentropic potential vorticity maps. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc.,
111, 877–946.
Houze, R. A., Jr., B. F. Smull, and P. Dodge, 1990: Mesoscale organization of
springtime rainstorms in Oklahoma. Mon. Wea. Rev., 118, 613–654.
194
Johnstone, T. P., and S. A. Burrus, 1998: An analysis of the 4 September 1996
Hickory Nut Gorge flash flood in western North Carolina. Preprints, 16th Conf. on
Weather Analysis and Forecasting, Phoenix, AZ, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 275–277.
Jones, S. C., and Coauthors, 2003: The extratropical transition of tropical cyclones:
Forecast challenges, current understanding, and future directions. Wea. and
Forecasting, 18, 1052–1092.
Junker, N. W., R.S. Schneider, and S.L. Fauver, 1999: A study of heavy rainfall
events during the Great Midwest Flood of 1993. Wea. Forecasting, 14, 701–712.
Kalnay, E., and Coauthors, 1996: The NCEP/NCAR 40-year reanalysis project. Bull.
Amer. Meteor. Soc., 77, 437471.
Kane, R. J., Jr., C. R. Chelius, and J. M. Fritsch, 1987: Precipitation characteristics
of mesoscale convective weather systems. J. Appl. Meteor., 26, 1345–1357.
Karl, T. R., and R. W. Knight, 1998: Secular trends of precipitation amount,
frequency, and intensity in the United States. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 79, 231–
241.
Kistler, R., and Coauthors, 2001: The NCEP/NCAR 50-year reanalysis: Monthly
means CD-ROM and documentation. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 82, 247–267.
Klein, P. M., P. A. Harr, and R. L. Elsberry, 2000: Extratropical transition of western
north Pacific tropical cyclones: An overview and conceptual model of the
transformation stage. Wea. and Forecasting, 15, 373–395.
——, ——, and ——, 2002: Extratropical transition of western north Pacific tropical
cyclones: Midlatitude and tropical cyclone contributions to reintensification. Mon.
Wea. Rev., 130, 2240–2259.
Koch, S. E., and C. A. Ray, 1996: Mesoanalysis of summertime convergence zones
in central and eastern North Carolina. Wea. Forecasting, 12, 56–77.
——, S. E., M. desJardins, and P. J. Kocin, 1983: An interactive Barnes objective
map analysis scheme for use with satellite and conventional data. J. Appl.
Meteor., 22, 1487–1503.
Konrad, C. E., II, 1997: Synoptic-scale features associated with warm season heavy
rainfall over the interior southeastern United States. Wea. Forecasting, 12, 557–
571.
La Rue, J. A., and R. J. Younkin, 1963: Large-scale precipitation volumes, gradients,
and distribution. Mon. Wea. Rev., 91, 393–401.
195
Langmaid, A. H., and A. J. Riordan, 1998: Surface mesoscale processes during the
1994 Palm Sunday tornado outbreak. Mon. Wea. Rev., 126, 2117–2132.
LaPenta, K. D., and Coauthors, 1995: The challenge of forecasting heavy rain and
flooding throughout the eastern region of the National Weather Service. Part I:
Characteristics and events. Wea. Forecasting, 10, 78–90.
Lin, Y. L, S. Chiao, T. A. Wang, M. L. Kaplan, and R. P. Weglarz, 2001: Some
common ingredients for heavy orographic rainfall. Wea. Forecasting, 16, 633–
660.
Luo, M., J. Fischer, A. Farmer, C. Moynihan, and A. Baker, 2004: Storm in the
subways: Overview; Downpour overwhelms transit in morning rush. New York
Times, 9 September, Metropolitan Desk, final late edition, section A, page 1,
column 3.
Maddox, R. A., L. R. Hoxit, C. F. Chappel, and F. Caracena, 1978: Comparison of
meteorological aspects of the Big Thompson and Rapid City flash floods. Mon.
Wea. Rev., 106, 375–389.
——, C. F. Chappel, and F. Caracena, 1979: Synoptic and meso-α aspects of flash
flood events. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 60, 115–123.
Marks, F. D., 1985: Evolution of the structure of precipitation in hurricane Allen
(1980). Mon. Wea. Rev., 113, 909–930.
——, and P. M. Austin, 1979: Effects of the New England coastal front on the
distribution of precipitation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 107, 53–67.
Martin, J. E., 1998: On the deformation term in the quasigeostrophic omega
equation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 126, 2000–2007.
McDonald, B.E., and M.N. Baker, 2001: The NWS National QPF Verification
Program. COMET RFC/HPC Hydrometeorology course 02-1. [Available online at
http://www.hpc.ncep.noaa.gov/npvu/confpres/hydromet02/hydromet02_1.pdf.].
Mesinger, F., and Coauthors, 2006: North American regional reanalysis. Bull. Amer.
Meteor. Soc., 87, 343–360.
Mook, C. P., 1955: Surface streamlines associated with the torrential rains of August
18–19, 1955, in the northeastern United States. Mon. Wea. Rev., 83, 181–183.
Moore, J. T., F. H. Glass, C. E. Graves, S. M. Rochette, and M. J. Singer, 2003: The
environment of warm-season elevated thunderstorms associated with heavy
rainfall over the central United States. Wea. Forecasting, 18, 861–878.
196
NOAA, 2006: U.S. natural hazard statistics. Office of Climate, Water, and Weather
Services. [Available online at http://www.weather.gov/om/hazstats.shtml.].
Novak, D. R., L. F. Bosart, D. Keyser, and J. S. Waldstreicher, 2004: An
observational study of cold season–banded precipitation in northeast U.S.
cyclones. Wea. Forecasting, 19, 993–1010.
O’Handley, C. and L. F. Bosart, 1996: The impact of the Appalachian mountains on
cyclonic weather systems. Part I: A climatology. Mon. Wea. Rev., 124, 1353–
1373.
Olson, D. A., N. W. Junker, and B. Korty, 1995: Evaluation of 33 years of
quantitative precipitation forecasting at the NMC. Wea. Forecasting, 10, 498–
511.
Petersen, W. A., and Coauthors, 1999: Mesoscale and radar observations of the
Fort Collins flash flood of 28 July 1997. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 80, 191–216.
Pontrelli, M. D., G. Bryan, and J. M. Fritsch, 1999: The Madison County, Virginia,
flash flood of 27 June 1995. Wea. Forecasting, 14, 384–404.
Rappaport, E. N., 2000: Loss of life in the United States associated with recent
Atlantic tropical cyclones. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 81, 2065–2073.
Rodgers, E. B., S. W. Chang, and H. F., Pierce, 1994: A satellite observational and
numerical study of precipitation characteristics in western north Atlantic tropical
cyclones. J. Appl. Meteor., 33, 129–139.
Roeloffzen, J. C., W. D. van den Berg, and J. Oerlemans, 1986: Frictional
convergence at coastlines. Tellus, 38A, 397–411.
Schumacher, P. N., D. J. Knight, and L. F. Bosart, 1996: Frontal interaction with the
Appalachian mountains. Part 1: A climatology. Mon. Wea. Rev., 124, 2453–2468.
Schumacher, R. S., and R. H. Johnson, 2005: Organization and environmental
properties of extreme-rain-producing mesoscale convective systems. Mon. Wea.
Rev., 133, 961–976.
——, and ——, 2006: Characteristics of U.S. extreme rain events during 1999–2003.
Wea. Forecasting, 21, 69–85.
Schwartz, B. E., C. F. Chappel, W. E. Togstad, and X. P. Zhong, 1990: The
Minneapolis flash flood: Meteorological analysis and operational response. Wea.
Forecasting, 5, 3–21.
197
Sock, A. F., 2005: A study of precipitation enhancement in landfalling tropical
cyclones due to induced mesoscale features. M.S. thesis, Department of Earth
and Atmospheric Sciences, University at Albany, State University of New York,
176 pp.
Trenberth, K. E., 1978: On the interpretation of the diagnostic quasi-geostrophic
omega equation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 106, 131–137.
Uccellini, L. W., and D. R. Johnson, 1979: The coupling of upper and lower
tropospheric jet streaks and implications for the development of severe
convective storms. Mon. Wea. Rev., 107, 682–703.
Ulbrich, C. W., and L. G. Lee, 2002: Rainfall characteristics associated with the
remnants of tropical storm Helene in upstate South Carolina. Wea. Forecasting,
17, 1257–1267.
Wilks, D. S., 2005: Statistical Methods in the Atmospheric Sciences. 2d ed.
Academic Press, 648 pp.
Winkler, J. A., 1988: Climatological characteristics of summertime extreme
rainstorms in Minnesota. Ann. Assoc. Amer. Geog., 78, 57–73.
198