Chapter 9: Civilizations of the Americas: Prehistory – A.D. 1570
The first Stone Age humans set foot in what is now the Americas as early as 20,000 B.C. They
had no idea that they were the first people to walk on this land. They did not know that the land
consisted of two huge continents that we call North and South America. Within these two
regions lies a cultural region we call Mesoamerica. It is made up of Mexico and Central
America. Some of the earliest civilizations in the Americas developed here.
Goals for Learning
To explain how the first Americans may have come to the Americas
To identify three important early Southwestern cultures
To explain characteristics of four regional Indian cultures
To identify the cultures of early Mesoamerica and South America
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Early American Empires
Map Skills: The land that connects the continents of North America and South America is
called Mesoamerica. It is made up of Mexico and Central America.
This map shows four early American empires—the Olmecs, the Mayas, the Aztecs, and the
Incas. The dates show about when those empires began. It also shows the roads in the Incan
Empire.
Study the map, then answer the following questions:
1. Why did the Incan roads run mostly north and south instead of east and west?
2. Which empire seems to have been the biggest?
3. Which empire was the smallest?
4. What mountain range runs along the west coast of South America, within the Incan empire?
5. Which empire is the oldest?
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Reading Strategy: Questioning
As you read, ask yourself questions. This will help you understand more of the information.
You’ll also become a more active reader. Questioning the text will also help you to be a more
active reader. Ask yourself:
What do I hope to learn from this text?
What do the facts and details in this text tell me?
Are there any people or situations in this text that make connections with my life?
Key Vocabulary Words
Lesson 1
Glacier: a thick sheet of ice
Lesson 2
Kiva: a small underground building used for ceremonies
Geometric: Having simple designs made up of straight lines and circles
Lesson 3
Palisade: a wooden fence
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Lesson 1: In Search of the First Americans
Objectives
To explain how people may have first come to the Americas
To describe an important discovery in New Mexico
To explain the importance of the Folsom Point and the Clovis Point
Reading Strategy: Questioning
What details are important to understanding the first Americans?
Glacier
A thick sheet of ice
Archaeologists want to learn when the first Americans reached the Americas. They also want to
learn where the people came from and what their lives were like. These people lived so long
ago that archaeologists have found only a few artifacts. Archaeologists will continue to search
for new evidence to help them better understand these people.
How Did the First Americans Come to the Americas?
The first Americans came to the Americas during the last Ice Age. Thick sheets of ice called
glaciers covered the upper third of North America. Life during the Ice Age was hard, bitter
cold, and very dangerous. People were nomads, surviving by hunting. A nomad is a person who
moves from place to place. Eventually, they walked from Asia over a frozen body of water now
called the Bering Strait. In search of food, they probably were following herds of animals.
Others would follow them over thousands of years. When the Ice Age ended, the land grew
warmer. Slowly, the people we now call American Indians settled in communities all over
North and South America. They created different cultures. Some created ways of living that
were simple. Other cultures created complex societies like those in Europe, Asia, and Africa.
How Long Have Indians Lived in North America?
At one time, scientists thought that American Indians had lived in North America for no more
than 4,000 years. Then, in 1908, George McJunkin, an African American cowboy, made a
discovery. He was riding his horse in Folsom, New Mexico. Heavy rain had flooded the area.
McJunkin noticed that the floodwaters had washed away many layers of dirt. The water had
uncovered many very large animal bones. He called it his “bone pit.?? He knew that the bones
were important because of how big they were and how deep they were buried.
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Reading Strategy: Questioning
Think beyond the text. Consider your own thoughts and experiences as you read about
important discoveries.
Writing About History
Imagine you have just made a discovery like the one George McJunkin made. Write two
paragraphs in your notebook describing the first thing you would do.
Although self taught, McJunkin had collected ancient bones, rocks, minerals, and old
arrowheads. He owned books on geology and natural history. McJunkin wrote to scientists
asking them to come and see what he had discovered. At first, scientists were not interested. It
was only after McJunkin died in 1922 that scientists decided to take his advice and examine his
“bone pit.??
What Did Scientists Learn from the “Bone Pit???
In 1926, the animal bones were dug up and brought to the Colorado Museum of Natural
History. They turned out to be important evidence about how long American Indians had lived
in North America. The bones were those of ancient buffaloes. Radiocarbon dating of the bones
showed them to be about 9,000 years old. Scientists also discovered a piece of flint stuck in the
ribs of one of the animals. It had been shaped by a human into a sharp spear point. Scientists
named the sharpened flint piece the Folsom Point. The Folsom Point had been buried at the
same time as the bones. That meant that American Indians had been living in the New Mexico
area for at least 9,000 years. George McJunkin had made a major scientific discovery.
Anthropologists now wondered if those who made the Folsom Point were really the oldest
people. Were there even more ancient people who lived before the makers of the Folsom Point?
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Were the Clovis People the First Americans?
In Clovis, New Mexico, a new spear point was found in the 1930s. The Clovis Point was more
than 4,000 years older than the spear point found in Folsom. Many anthropologists believe that
the Clovis people entered the Americas about 13,000 years ago. For many years,
anthropologists thought that the Clovis people were the first Americans. However, new
evidence changed that belief. It is now thought that other groups entered the Americas at about
the same time.
Lesson 1 Review
On a sheet of paper, write the answer to each question. Use complete sentences.
1. How do we think the first people got to the Americas? Why did they come here?
2. What was George McJunkin’s discovery?
3. How did scientists determine the age of the bones in the pit?
4. Why are the Folsom Point and the Clovis Point important?
5. Why did many anthropologists think that the Clovis people were the first Americans?
What do you think?
George McJunkin knew that his discovery was important. Why do you think that scientists
were not interested in it until after he died?
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Lesson 2: Early Southwestern Cultures
Objectives
To identify the cultures of the Hohokam, the Mogollon, and the Anasazi
To explain the environment in which each of these cultures lived
Reading Strategy: Questioning
What do you think you will learn about early Southwestern cultures?
In what is now the Southwestern United States, archaeologists discovered the remains of three
important societies of ancient Indians. These Indians—the Hohokam, the Mogollon, and the
Anasazi—shared a similar background. Each had changed from hunting and gathering their
food to growing their food. However, the environments where they lived were very different.
Where Did Each of the Southwestern Cultures Live?
The Hohokam lived in a dry desert area in what is now Arizona. The Mogollon lived among
tree-lined mountain ranges and a river valley in southeastern Arizona and southern New
Mexico. The Anasazi lived in the canyons and the flat-topped mesas where Arizona, New
Mexico, Utah, and Colorado meet. Because of the different environments, the cultures
developed different methods of farming, building shelters, and showing their artistic ideas.
Why Did the Hohokam Build Canals?
Anthropologists believe that the Hohokam developed from a combination of local people in
Arizona and Mesoamericans who had moved from the south. Their civilization began about
300 B.C. The Hohokam lived in a desert area. They had to figure out how to bring water to
their land. Their solution was to build irrigation canals using simple hand tools. From A.D. 800
until 1000, they built hundreds of miles of canals. The network of canals provided the
Hohokam with more than just water for their crops. The canals provided water for drinking,
cooking, and washing. The Hohokam grew cotton that was woven into cloth. They used canal
water to create painted pottery. The Hohokam also made beautiful jewelry using seashells.
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Kiva
A small underground building used for ceremonies
Geometric
Having simple designs made up of straight lines and circles
What Was Snaketown?
Snaketown was an important place for the Hohokam. This settlement ruled smaller villages by
controlling their canals. The Hohokam built ball courts in Snaketown for sports and rituals.
Mounds found within the remains of Hohokam villages may have been dance platforms or
places where their leaders lived. By about 1450, most people had abandoned the Hohokam
area. This most likely was caused by a lack of water and a failed irrigation system. The Pima
Indians later lived in the same area. They named the earlier people Hohokam, meaning “the
vanished ones.??
Why Are the Mogollons Known for Their Artwork?
We do not know what ancient peoples called themselves. For example, Mogollons were given
their name by anthropologists because they lived among the Mogollon mountain ranges. These
mountains where named after Don Juan Mogollon, a Spanish governor of New Mexico in the
early 1700s. It is believed that the Mogollon people began farming this area about 200 B.C.
The Mogollon created shelters both on high ground and underground. These unusual kivas, or
small underground buildings, were used for religious ceremonies and councils.
The Mogollon people are especially known for their artwork. They created a new form of
pottery. Between A.D. 900 and 1200, they created beautiful clay bowls. These had black and
white geometric designs and animal images. Geometric designs are created with circles and
straight lines. The most important art that the Mogollons are known for is their rock art. Over a
wide geographic area, the Mogollon people carved thousands of mysterious images into the
surfaces of rocks. There are images of insects, fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals. There are
also human faces and masks. No other people anywhere in the world created so many artistic
images.
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How Do We Know the Anasazi Were Master Builders?
The Anasazi are known as the master builders of the Southwestern ancient Indian cultures.
Their “Golden Age?? was between A.D. 850 and 1150. During these 300 years, the Anasazi
constructed a planned community. This community contained a massive complex of ceremonial
buildings and roads. This building project was shaped like a wagon wheel (which the ancient
Indian people did not use). The center of the “wheel?? was in Chaco Canyon in New Mexico. It
was here that huge ceremonial buildings, known as great houses or cliff dwellings, were built.
The style of the stone buildings is called pueblo.
It is estimated that more than 100,000 pieces of timber had to be carried from the mountains to
create floors and roofs. They had no work animals, such as horses, to help them. The timber
had to be carried about 50 miles on the backs of workers. Roads were built from the center like
the spokes of a wheel. The roads led to villages lying along the rim of the wheel. The villages
could be as far as 10 miles away from the center. The leaders of the Anasazi communicated
from the central great houses to these villages with signal fires. They used obsidian glass like a
mirror to reflect the message being signaled by the firelight.
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What Was the Chaco Canyon Settlement?
There may have been more than 100,000 people living in the Chaco Canyon Anasazi
settlement. It became a major center for trade, crafts, and religious ceremonies. There is
evidence that it was also a place to carefully study the stars and planets. It was a place of wealth
and power. Eventually, around A.D. 1150, the “Golden Age?? ended. The people left the area
for unknown reasons. Maybe there was not enough rain. There may have been too many people
and not enough resources. Leaders may have lost their ability to lead such a complex
community.
Lesson 2 Review
On a sheet of paper, use the words from the Word Bank to complete each sentence correctly.
Word Bank
Anasazi
Chaco Canyon
Hohokam
Mogollan
Snaketown
1. The _____ built canals to bring water to their land.
2. The _____ were known as “master builders?? because of their buildings and roads.
3. The _____ were known for their beautiful pottery.
4. The _____ settlement ruled the canals of smaller villages.
5. The _____ planned settlement became a major center for trade.
What do you think?
Why do you think the Chaco Canyon settlement disappeared?
History in Your Life
Visiting Anasazi Treasures
Explorers of the 2000s are lucky to be able to visit places built by the Anasazis.
Archaeologists have found the ruins of numerous Anasazi creations. Most of these can be
found in the Four Corners area, where Colorado, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico meet.
Mesa Verde National Park and the nearby Ute Mountain Tribal Park are located in
southwestern Colorado. Both parks feature Anasazi cliff dwellings and rock art. Mesa Verde
Park features Cliff Palace, the largest known cliff home. Other attractions include mesa-top
pueblos and pit houses.
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Lesson 3: Early Regional Cultures
Reading Strategy: Questioning
What do you think you will learn about by reading this lesson?
Objectives
To describe where the Woodland Indians lived
To describe Mississippian civilizations
To describe a Plains Indian settlement
To explain one way the Indians of the Pacific Northwest were different from other cultures
Indian cultures differ from one region to another. Anthropologists divide these cultures into
four basic groups. These groups are Woodland, Mississippi River (Mississippian), Great Plains,
and Pacific Northwest. Adena and Hopewell were early Woodland cultures. Mississippian
Indian settlements were in what is now the Midwestern and Southeastern states in the United
States. The Indians of the Great Plains lived west of the Mississippi River. Their way of life
was very different from the Woodland and Mississippian Indians. On the West Coast, the
Indians of the Pacific Northwest had a way of life different from all the others.
What Is Known About the Woodland Indians and the Adena Burial Mounds?
Woodland Indians lived east of the Mississippi River. They could be found on the East Coast
and around the Great Lakes. They lived in forest areas near streams and lakes. The Adena and
Hopewell were Woodland Indians. They were also hunter-gatherers and mound builders. In
Ohio, on private property called Adena, burial mounds were discovered. The Adena burial
mounds measured 300 feet wide. Inside the burial mounds were small log rooms in which the
dead were buried. The burial rooms also contained tobacco and pipes. Adena pipes were
beautifully made and are considered works of art. The Adena people lived in villages of less
than 500 people. This culture survived from 700 B.C. to A.D. 100.
What Was the Hopewell People’s Snake Mound?
The Hopewell people followed the Adena in the Ohio area. Hopewell mounds were found in
the 1840s on the Hopewell farm in Ohio. The largest mound was over 30 feet high. By A.D.
100, the Hopewell people had become farmers. They planted barley, sunflowers, and squash.
By concentrating on farming, they took an important step to control their food supply.
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Reading Strategy: Questioning
As you read, notice the details in the text. What questions can you ask yourself about these
early cultures?
One of the most interesting creations in this area is a very large earthen Snake Mound. The jaw
of the Snake Mound is 17 feet long. Its mouth is swallowing a huge egg. The Snake Mound
curves over the land for more than a quarter mile. Some archaeologists believe the Snake
Mound is an Indian symbol of growth and change. The are is evidence that Indian cultures
believed this because snakes grow and change by shedding their skin.
Where Was the Poverty Point Culture?
In the 1950s, archaeologists discovered an old aerial photograph of what looked like a 19thcentury Louisiana cotton plantation. The plantation, named Poverty Point, was located in the
lower Mississippi River Valley. The photograph showed the outlines of a large earthwork made
by humans. It was more than 4,000 years old. This great structure is evidence of the existence
of another highly developed ancient American Indian culture. This group of Mississippians was
named the Poverty Point people.
The Poverty Point culture was unusual because it appeared to be made up of hunter-gatherers,
not farmers. Hunter-gatherers must get their food by hunting, fishing, and gathering wild
plants. They move from place to place. This way of life does not usually produce extra food for
workers. It took many workers hundreds of years to create and enlarge the earthwork. It was
completed around 1000 B.C. After that, the Poverty Point culture declined and eventually
ended.
Where Was the City of Cahokia?
The city of Cahokia was located in the present state of Illinois. By 1200, the city of Cahokia
had a population of more than 20,000 people. At the time it was the largest settlement of
Mississippians in North America, covering six square miles. Cahokia was located where three
rivers come together: the Missouri, Illinois, and Mississippi Rivers.
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Palisade
A wooden fence
Cahokia was a planned city with many public buildings. A wooden fence called a palisade
surrounded the city. The people of Cahokia were also mound builders. They built 120 mounds.
One mound, called Monk’s Mound, is the largest mound in North America. Monk’s Mound
was named after a French monk who found it in the early 1800s. Over the years, the population
of the city declined. It is not known why this happened. It could be because the weather
changed and they were unable to produce enough food. Disease may have played a part, or
wars may have caused a decline. By 1500, the people of Cahokia had vanished.
Where Was the City of Moundville?
The city of Moundville was located in present-day Alabama. Second only to Cahokia, it had the
largest population between 1000 and 1400. This Mississippian settlement was built on a high
bluff overlooking the Black Warrior River. In the center of the settlement were 26 earthen
mounds located on a large plaza. A major agricultural center, Moundville had large supplies of
Indian maize, or corn. The people of Moundville were known for their artistic achievements.
They made excellent pottery, copper pieces, and stonework. By 1350, Moundville began to
decline. By the 1500s, it had been abandoned.
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Why Were the Iroquois Important?
Between 1200 and 1400, a powerful Woodland culture in Upper New York developed. These
people are believed to have descended from the Mississippian Indians. Six tribes called the
Iroquois created a peace treaty called the “Great Law of Peace.?? They organized themselves
into a democracy. Their great leaders, Hiawatha and Seneca, are still remembered today for
their important speeches. When Europeans arrived, the Iroquois were the most powerful
Indians in North America.
What Was the Culture of the Great Plains Indians Like?
The Great Plains is an area located between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains.
The Great Plains is a place of flat grasslands, rivers, streams and a few mountains. There are
not many trees. Summers are hot and dry, and winters are very cold. The Plains Indian tribes
living in the 1800s were the Sioux, Cheyenne, Comanche, and Blackfoot. These Indians rode
horses while hunting buffalo. But their way of life was not always like this. Before the 1500s,
there were no horses in the Americas. The horse arrived later, with Spanish explorers.
Indian settlements before the 1500s were mostly found on the borders of the Great Plains near
rivers and streams. From about 850, settlements grew up along the Missouri River. The
Mandan tribe lived along this river in present-day North Dakota. Each Mandan village
contained only a few hundred people. They lived in dome-shaped buildings. This type of
building was made of large logs covered with earth and straw. These Indians were farmers.
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How Were the Pacific Coast Indians Different from the Plains Indians?
The abundant supply of many natural resources made the way of life of the Pacific Coast
Indians different from that of the Plains Indians. The Pacific Coast Indians lived in Puget
Sound in what is now Washington State. Puget Sound is a large body of water surrounded on
three sides by land. It is an area rich in seafood, especially salmon. The Indians were experts at
fishing. Besides an endless supply of seafood, the woods were filled with wildlife, nuts, berries,
and root vegetables.
Even in winter there was enough food. In winter, they ate stored food that they had preserved
by drying. The woods were filled with cedar trees. The Indians used cedar to build their
shelters. These buildings were called longhouses, because they could be up to 100 feet long.
They shaped cedar into shoes, clothing, rope, and mats. They carved it into tools and shaped it
into bows and arrows. Even their canoes were made of cedar.
The Pacific Coast Indians showed their wealth with a custom called a potlatch. The word
potlatch means “to throw through the air.?? The host of the potlatch gave the guests many gifts.
The potlatch custom appears to be something only the Pacific Coast Indians did.
Who Are the Inuit?
In the Arctic in present-day Alaska and northern Canada, north of the Pacific Northwest
Indians, live the people that others call Eskimo. The word Eskimo means “eaters of raw meat.??
They call themselves Inuit, meaning “real people.?? Their lives were hard. They lived in a
harsh, frozen environment for most of the year. They built shelters out of blocks of snow. The
shelter is called an igloo, which means “home.?? They hunted sea mammals and caribou for
food. Their possessions were simple. They are known for their delicate carvings of ivory and
soapstone.
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Lesson 3 Review
On a sheet of paper, write the letter of the answer that correctly completes each sentence.
1. The Adena and _____ were early Woodland cultures.
A Hopewell
B Seneca
C Poverty Point
D Cahokia
2. Mound builders buried _____ in the mounds along with people who had died.
A weapons
B extra food
C tobacco and pipes
D barley, sunflowers, and squash
3. The _____ culture was probably made up of hunter-gatherers, not farmers.
A Hopewell
B Seneca
C Poverty Point
D Cahokia
4. Plains Indians of the Mandan tribe lived in _____ buildings
A low, flat
B dome-shaped
C square
D log
5. The abundant supply of seafood, wildlife, nuts, berries, and vegetables made the lives of the
_____ Indians unusual.
A Woodland
B Mississippian
C Great Plains
D Pacific Northwest
What do you think?
Great leaders of this time, such as Hiawatha and Seneca, are remembered for their speeches.
Who do you think will be remembered for their speeches 100 years from now?
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Lesson 4: Early Civilizations of Mesoamerica
Objectives
To identify the area known as Mesoamerica
To identify five cultures of Mesoamerica and South America
Reading Strategy: Questioning
Study the photographs and artwork in this lesson. Ask yourself how they relate to what you are
reading.
More than 10,000 years ago, in a valley in what is now Mexico, an ancient hunter walked in the
mud for 30 feet. In 2006, archaeologists discovered 13 of his footprints preserved in solid rock.
Today, we call the area where he walked Mesoamerica. Mesoamerica means “middle
America.?? It is the name given to the land between the continents of North and South
America. It is in Mesoamerica that American Indians reached their highest level of cultural
development. The Olmecs, the Mayas, the Toltecs, and the Aztecs created these advanced
Mesoamerican civilizations. The Inca Empire on the continent of South America is another
important example of a highly advanced civilization in the Americas.
What Were the Cultural Contributions of the Olmecs?
The Olmecs were ancient people living in the heart of Mesoamerica between 1200 B.C. and
400 B.C. During this time, the Olmecs developed the first important civilization in this area.
The Olmecs created the first system of writing in America. They were good mathematicians
and astronomers. They used the zero many centuries before the Greeks. They developed a
calendar of 365 days and a special 260-day religious calendar. The best example of Olmec art
is 10-foot-tall stone heads. The purpose of the giant stone heads is a mystery.
What Were Olmec Settlements Like?
Olmec settlements contained up to 1,000 people. They lived in a rich agricultural area and grew
maize, squash, and beans. Around 900 B.C. they built a very tall earthen mound shaped like a
pyramid with a flat top. Some anthropologists believe that the Olmecs were the “mother
culture?? of Mesoamerica. This means that the Olmec’s cultural developments laid the
foundation for the achievements of the Mayas, the Toltecs, and the Aztecs.
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Reading Strategy: Questioning
What do you already know about the Mayas?
Why Are the Mayas Considered the Most Advanced Culture in Mesoamerica?
Maya civilization is considered the most advanced in Mesoamerica. It started around A.D. 250.
The Mayas developed an excellent written language. It equaled the complex written languages
of the Europeans and Chinese. The Mayas were scientists, master mathematicians, and
excellent astronomers. These skills allowed them to keep track of time in the past and into the
future. The Maya calendar began in 3114 B.C. It was based on 13 cycles of 400 years each. The
Mayas thought that this calendar would end in 2012. After this date, a brand-new calendar
cycle would begin.
Maya civilization was a complex agricultural society. The Mayas farmed an area for up to five
years. Then they planted nothing there for five to 10 years, allowing the soil to recover. Their
favorite drink was chocolate. Chocolate was so special it was reserved for political and
religious leaders.
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The Mayas were skilled engineers. They cleared jungles and built large cities throughout the
area. These cities contained impressive buildings and boulevards. The Mayas were also known
for their beautiful artwork, especially their colorful murals. Ancient artists in other cultures
were not identified. However, Maya artists added their names to their art work. Today, the
descendants of the Mayas still live in the land of their ancestors.
What Kind of Political System Did the Mayas Have?
A king ruled the Mayas. A central council headed by the king ruled on very important matters.
There was a court system with local judges. Taxes were paid to tax collectors. To keep
expanding their teritory, the Mayas had a well-organized army. The army conquered other
people who were then brought into the Maya civilization.
How Was the Toltec Civilization Different from the Olmecs and Mayas?
Around A.D. 900, the Toltecs moved into the Valley of Mexico. There they found a city called
Tula. The city of Tula became the center of a great Toltec Empire. The Toltec culture was
different from the Olmecs and the Mayas. Political and religious leaders were most important
in those cultures. But in the Toltec culture, a special class of warriors gained power. Warriors
of the Jaguar, the Coyote, and the Eagle were names for organized military units. For 200
years, the Toltecs’ military might made them the strongest culture in Mesoamerica. By A.D.
1200, a less advanced invader destroyed the Toltec Empire. Eventually the city of Tula was
destroyed. However, for another 200 years, Toltec influence could be seen throughout the area.
The ideas and achievements of the Toltecs heavily influenced the Aztec civilization.
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What Caused the Aztecs to Settle on an Island in Mexico?
Around A.D. 1200, the Aztecs began moving into the Valley of Mexico. Their culture was a
simple one. They were not a powerful people. In fact, other groups looked down upon them. At
this time, the Aztecs had no written records. But they told a story of how, around A.D. 1300, a
god spoke to their leader. The god told their leader, Tenoch, to take his people to an island in
Lake Texcoco. On the island he should look for an eagle eating a snake. The eagle would be
sitting on a cactus growing from a rock. It was on that spot that Tenoch was told to build a
great city. They named the city Tenochtitlán, or “the city of Tenoch.?? The island was not a
good building site. Large buildings gradually sank into the wet land. The Aztecs kept building
new buildings on top on those that sank below ground. Eventually, the wet land was filled in.
Tenochtitlán became a magnificent city. To connect the island to the mainland, the Aztecs built
raised stone roads.
How Did the Aztecs Become an Empire?
In 1376, they selected their first emperor. Their leader’s ancestors were the Toltecs. The Aztecs
sought to recreate the influential Toltec civilization. Like the Toltecs, the Aztecs began to
conquer other groups by military force. They forced these conquered people to pay part of their
food or other valuables to them. By the early 1500s, the Aztecs had built a large empire and had
become a harsh military power.
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Reading Strategy: Questioning
What details are important to understanding the Incas’ problems?
Who Were the Incas?
The empire of the Inca was located in the valleys of the Andes Mountains in South America.
Their capital city of Cuzco was built high in the mountains of what is now Peru. Around A.D.
1100, the Incas began conquering tribes from the surrounding lands. By 1453, the Inca Empire
covered a large area containing more than six million people. The Inca Empire included parts
of five modern nations: Ecuador, Peru, Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia. It was the largest empire
in North and South America.
The Inca Empire faced more difficult problems than the empires in Mesoamerica. One of the
problems was how to govern such a large area with so many different kinds of people. First, the
Incas divided the empire into four geographic areas. They call their empire the “Land of the
Four Quarters.?? Inca was the name they gave their emperor. Second, once a tribe was
conquered by military force, they asked the tribal leaders to become partners in the empire. The
Incas set up rules that the tribal leaders had to follow. In this way, local leaders could make
many decisions for their own tribes but still remain loyal to the Inca Empire.
Biography
Pachacutec Inca Yupanqui: died 1471
The year of Pachacutec’s birth is not known. His name means “he who changes the world.??
He became emperor of the Inca people in 1438. Pachacutec proved himself to be a brave
warrior and a good ruler. He also served as the religious leader of his empire. During his rule,
Inca territory expanded, and the Incas built a system of roads. He developed an effective
government and economy. Pachacutec was responsible for many building projects. It is thought
that he built Machu Picchu as a place to go to relax. Machu Picchu, also known as the “Lost
City,?? is high in the Andes Mountains. Many historians consider Pachacutec to be one of the
greatest rulers of all time.
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Writing About History
Imagine that you are visiting one of the Olmec, Maya, Incan, or Aztec cities. Research the
architecture and layout of such a place. In your notebook, describe it. Include a drawing.
Why Were Roads So Important to the Incas?
The empire covered about 2,500 miles from the northern to the southern end. Cuzco was the
capital city. From Cuzco, the Inca emperor needed to communicate with the rest of the empire.
The Incas were skilled engineers. They built more than 14,000 miles of roads. The network of
roads connected the coastal areas and the valleys. In the mountains, roads rose to heights of
5,000 feet. Using the network of roads, the Incas created a fast communication system by using
relay runners along the roads. There were rest areas that contained food and water.
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Then and Now
How About a Game of Basketball?
In the center of Maya cities near the temples and palaces, you might have found a large court.
Its shape was like today’s basketball court. Tall stone walls stood on the two long sides of the
court.
High in the middle of each wall was a stone ring, or hoop. Often, it was 30 feet above the
ground! The Mayas put the hoop straight up and down instead of parallel to the ground. The
Mayas used the court to play a game with a ball made of solid rubber. The ball weighed about
five pounds. Players were not allowed to use their hands or feet to get the ball through the
hoop. They passed the ball back and forth with their hips, knees, and forearms.
Some people believe that for the Mayas, the game represented the battle between life and death.
The rubber ball may have been a symbol of the sun. What do you think the game of basketball
represents today?
Lesson 4 Review
On a sheet of paper, write the answer to each question. Use complete sentences.
1. What is Mesoamerica?
2. What was the culture of the Mayas like?
3. Why do some anthropologists think that the Olmecs may be the “mother culture?? of
Mesoamerica?
4. Why did the Aztecs build their city on an island in a lake in Mexico?
5. Why did the Incas build so many miles of roads?
What do you think?
What is the most imortant thing you have learned by studying these ancient Mesoamerican
cultures?
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Document-Based Reading
Knighthood for the Incas
In the Inca empire, it was a great honor for a boy to become a knight. He had to be over 16
years old to take part in this test. His whole family shared his honor—or his disgrace, if he
failed. Here is an account of the difficult test faced by one group.
The candidates were required to observe a very strict fast for six days, receiving only a handful
of raw sara (their corn) apiece and a jug of plain water, without anything else.…
Such a rigorous fast was not usually permitted for more than three days, but this period was
doubled for the initiates undergoing their ordeal, in order to show if they were men enough to
suffer any hunger or thirst to which they might be exposed in time of war. The fathers, brothers,
and other close relatives of the candidates underwent a less rigorous, but none the less strictly
observed, fast, praying their father the Sun to strengthen and encourage the youths so that they
might come through the ordeal with honor. Anyone who showed weakness or distress or asked
for more food was failed and eliminated from the test. After the fast they were allowed some
victuals [food] to restore their strength and then tried for bodily agility. As a test they were
made to run from the hill called Huanacauri, which they regarded as sacred, to the fortress of
the city… at the fortress a pennant or banner was set up as a finishing post, and whoever
reached it first was elected captain over the rest. Those who arrived second, third, fourth, and
down to the tenth fastest were also held in great honor, while those who flagged or fainted on
the course were disgraced and eliminated.…
The next day they were divided into two equal bands… and they were required to fight one
against the other… so that they could all display their agility and skill… In such struggles the
weapons were blunted so that they were less formidable than in real warfare; nevertheless there
were severe casualties which were sometimes fatal.…
Document-Based Questions
1. How do you know that this event is important in the lives of young men in Peru?
2. Why do you think that family members of the candidates also fasted?
3. Why is showing hunger or thirst considered a sign of weakness?
4. Do you think that this custom is a fair test of a man’s strength? Explain.
5. From the last sentence, how do you know that this custom could be very dangerous?
Source: Royal Commentaries of the Incas and General History of Peru, by Garcilaso de la
Vega, El Inca.
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Spotlight Story: The Lady of the Lines
Before the Great Incan Empire existed, the Nascan people lived near Peru’s southern coast
from 200 B.C. to A.D.. 650. Today, because of the work of Maria Reiche, we now know that
the Nascans created mysterious, gigantic drawings in one of the world’s driest deserts. Nasca
means a “hard place to live.?? Each of the more than 70 drawings was created by a single line.
The drawings are known as the Nasca Lines of Peru.
Maria Reiche was born in Germany in 1903. In 1940, although a mathematician, she became an
assistant to an archaeologist studying the Nasca Lines. Most of the drawings are of animals or
geometric designs. They are so large that they can be seen only from an aircraft. What one can
see on the ground are straight paths with dark rocks lining the sides.
Maria made the study of the Nasca Lines her life’s work. The work was physically difficult.
The wind continually covered the lines with pebbles. She had to sweep the pebbles away. The
people in the area called her the “crazy woman sweeping the desert.?? Maria said, “What
compelled me on this quest was my curiosity.??
Maria Reiche especially wanted to know how and why the drawings were made. She thought
that the Nascans created the drawings by first drawing crisscrossed parallel lines, called a grid,
on cloth. They then drew a picture on the grid to use as a model. Next, they drew a larger grid
on the desert floor. They then copied the smaller cloth drawing onto the larger desert grid. By
doing this they were able to create enormous drawings.
Maria noticed that at different times of the year many of the lines directly pointed to the rising
and setting of the sun and the moon. She thought the Nascans used the drawings to determine
when to plant seeds to assure a good harvest. The drawings, she thought, were a sky calendar.
Maria Reiche, the Lady of the Lines, died at age 95. She said that the Nasca Lines “should be
treated like a very fragile manuscript that is guarded in a special room in a library.’’ Because of
her work, in 1995 the United Nations declared that the location of the Nasca Lines was a World
Heritage Site.
Wrap-Up
1. Why did Maria Reiche want to study the Nasca Lines?
2. What did the people in the area think of her?
3. How could her background as a mathematician help Reiche in her study of the Nazca Lines?
4. Why don’t we know exactly why the ancient society in Peru created the Nasca Lines?
5. Why is it important to preserve historical sites like this one?
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Chapter 9 SUMMARY
The first Americans arrived during the last Ice Age. They walked from Asia over the Bering
Strait. Clues about how and when this happened are still being discovered.
Bones found in Folsom, New Mexico, proved that American Indians had been living in the
area for at least 9,000 years.
The Clovis Point was more than 4,000 years older than the Folsom Point. Scientists believe
that the Clovis people were the first Americans.
The Hohokam civilization began about 300 B.C. in what is now Arizona. They built irrigation
canals and created beautiful pottery and jewelry.
Beginning about 200 B.C., the Mogollon lived in what is now southeastern Arizona and
southern New Mexico. They created more artistic images than any other people in the world.
The Anasazi are known as master builders. Their civilization began in about 100 A.D. They
lived where Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and Colorado meet.
The Adena (beginning about 700 B.C.) and Hopewell (beginning about A.D. 100) were early
Woodland cultures. They were both mound builders.
Beginning around A.D. 1200, the Iroquois, a group of six different tribes, were a powerful
Woodland culture in Upper New York.
The Plains Indians lived between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. They were
Sioux, Cheyenne, Comanche, and Blackfoot Indians. The Mandans lived in what is now North
Dakota.
The Pacific Coast Indians lived in what is now Washington State. They were experts at fishing.
Eskimos, or Inuits, lived a hard life in a frozen environment. They are known for their ivory
and soapstone carvings.
Mesoamerica is the land between North and South America. The Olmecs developed the first
important civilization in this area around 1200 B.C.
The Mayas developed an excellent written language. Their most important cultural and artistic
achievements took place between A.D. 300 and 900.
Around A.D. 900, the Toltecs moved into the Valley of Mexico. In this culture, warriors
gained power.
The Aztecs moved into the Valley of Mexico around A.D. 1200. In 1521, the Aztec Empire
ended.
The Inca Empire was in the Andes Mountains in South America. The empire lasted about 100
years, ending in 1532.
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Chapter 9 REVIEW
On a sheet of paper, use the words from the Word Bank to complete each sentence correctly.
Word Bank
Anasazi
Aztec
Clovis
Hohokam
Incas
Inuit
Mayas
Mogollons
Olmecs
Toltecs
1. Scientists think the _____ people were among the first Americans.
2. The _____ are known for their rock art—images of insects, fish, reptiles, birds, and
mammals.
3. The _____ built cliff dwellings in the rock near where Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and
Colorado meet.
4. Because they lived in the desert, the _____ had to build irrigation canals to water their crops.
5. The _____ created the first system of writing in the Americas.
6. The _____ are known for their calendar, which was based on 400-year cycles.
7. By the early 1500s, the _____ people had become a harsh military power.
8. The _____ built more than 14,000 miles of roads to connect people in their large empire.
9. _____ civilization was different from others because of the importance of their military.
10. The _____, or Eskimo, people built shelters out of blocks of snow.
On a sheet of paper, write the letter of the answer that correctly completes each sentence.
11. The settlement of _____ was an important place for the Hohokam.
A Clovis
B Folsom
C Snaketown
D Cahokia
12. Archaeologists named the _____ after the mountain ranges in which they lived.
A ohokam
B Mogollan
C Anasazi
D Adena
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13. The _____ people created a very large earthen Snake Mound.
A Hohokam
B Mogollan
C Iroquois
D Hopewell
14. The _____ culture was unusual because even though they were not farmers, they had the
resources to build large earthen structures.
A Anasazi
B Adena
C Poverty Point
D Cahokia
15. The _____ tribes lived in Puget Sound, a large body of water surrounded on three sides by
land.
A Pacific Coast
B Plains Indian
C Inuit
D Iroquois
On a sheet of paper, write the answer to each question. Use complete sentences.
16. Choose one of the cultures you have just studied. How did the environment determine what
kinds of shelters they built and how they farmed?
17. How did George McJunkin know that the bones he discovered in 1908 were an important
scientific discovery?
17. Besides water for their crops, how did the Hohokam use the water from their canals?
Critical Thinking
On a sheet of paper, write your response to each question. Use complete sentences.
19. After the Incas conquered a tribe by military force, they asked the tribal leaders to become
partners in their empire. How did this make the Incan Empire stronger?
20. Why do you think archaeologists have found so few artifacts from the earliest Americans?
Test-Taking Tip: Try to answer all questions as completely as possible. When asked to
explain your answer, do so in complete sentences.
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Unit 1: Skill Builder
Timelines
Timelines show dates and events on a line, or scale. They may span thousands of years or only
a few months. A timeline may show key events in a region. It may list events in one person’s
lifetime. It may show events of a certain kind, such as scientific discoveries. In reading a
timeline, always look at the beginning and ending dates.
Timelines show the time relationships between events. They help you think about events in the
order they occurred. You see when an event happened. Then you can see what happened before
and after it.
Each chapter in this book begins with a timeline. Those timelines will help you focus on key
events and ideas in the chapter. As you read a chapter, create your own timeline of events. That
will help you study those events.
This timeline gives the dates of some important events in the first half of the 20th century.
Study it. Then answer the questions.
1. What are the beginning and ending dates on this timeline?
2. Did Einstein publish the Theory of Relativity before or after World War I?
3. In what year did World War I begin?
4. What event on this timeline happened during World War I?
5. What two events on this timeline happened in 1929?
6. Who came to power first—Hitler or Stalin?
7. How many years after Hitler came to power did World War II begin?
8. How long did World War II go on before the United States entered the war?
9. When was the United Nations formed?
10. Create a timeline showing key events in your life during the last school year.
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Unit 1 SUMMARY
The discovery of fire and the beginning of farming were among the most important events in
human history.
The time before humans left written records is called prehistory.
Civilizations began in Mesopotamia about 7,000 years ago.
Sumerians invented a system of writing called cuneiform.
The Assyrians were a warrior tribe in Mesopotamia.
The teachings of Zoroaster influenced Judaism and Christianity.
Egyptian civilizations developed in the valley of the Nile River in Africa.
Pharaohs in Egypt built pyramids for tombs. People filled them with things the ruler would
need in the afterlife.
The first Indian civilization began in the Indus River Valley.
Hinduism is based on castes, or classes. Everyone is born into a caste.
Siddhartha Gautama became the Buddha. Buddhism spread from India into Asia.
The Yangtze is the longer river in China; the first cities were built along this river about 2000
B.C.
Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle were Greek philosophers during the “Golden Age?? of Athens.
In 60 B.C., Pompey, Julius Caesar, and Crassus ruled together as the First Triumvirate.
Jesus was born in Palestine during the reign of Augustus. Followers of Jesus believed he was
the Son of God.
The Roman Empire fell in A.D. 476.
Mesoamerica is the land between North and South America.
The Olmecs developed the first system of writing in the Americas. They were mathematicians
and astronomers.
The Mayas are considered the most advanced culture in Mesoamerica. They influenced other
great civilizations of Mesoamerica.
The Aztecs moved into the Valley of Mexico about A.D. 900. Their capitol was the
magnificent city of Tenochtitlán.
The Incan Empire grew up in the Peruvian Andes Mountains. It ended in A.D. 1532.