3
PERSONALITY, PERCEPTION, AND ATTRIBUTION
CHAPTER SCAN
This chapter begins a two-chapter approach examining individual differences. Much of this
chapter is related to interactional psychology, and the advances made regarding personality and
behavior in specific situations. Personality characteristics discussed are locus of control, selfefficacy, self-esteem, self-monitoring, and positive/negative affect. Personality theories
explained are trait theory, psychodynamic theory, humanistic theory, and the integrative
approach. The chapter also examines how social perceptions influence the way we view the
world, and how attributions influence how we assign causality for behaviors.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Describe individual differences and their importance in understanding behavior.
Define personality.
Explain four theories of personality.
Identify several personality characteristics and their influences on behavior in
organizations.
Explain how personality is measured.
Discuss Carl Jung’s contribution to our understanding of individual differences, and explain
how his theory is used in the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.
Define social perception and explain how characteristics of the perceiver, the target, and the
situation affect it.
Identify five common barriers to social perception.
Explain the attribution process and how attributions affect managerial behavior.
37
38 Chapter 3: Personality, Perception, and Attribution
KEY TERMS
Chapter 3 introduces the following key terms:
individual differences
personality
psychodynamic theory
integrative approach
generalized self-efficacy
self-monitoring
negative affect
projective test
self-report questionnaire
extraversion
sensing
thinking
judging
social perception
selective perception
first-impression error
self-fulfilling prophecy
attribution theory
self-serving bias
interactional psychology
trait theory
humanistic theory
locus of control
self-esteem
positive affect
strong situation
behavioral measures
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
introversion
intuiting
feeling
perceiving
discounting principle
stereotype
projection
impression management
fundamental attribution error
THE CHAPTER SUMMARIZED
I.
THINKING AHEAD: How Norman Brinker Made His Mark (and His Fortune)
II.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
This chapter explores differences in individuals’ skills, abilities, personalities, perceptions,
attitudes, values, and ethics.
Interactional psychology offers a useful approach to understanding individuals in organizations.
This approach emphasizes understanding the person and the situations in order to understand
human behavior.
III.
PERSONALITY
Personality is an individual difference that lends consistency to a person’s behavior. Both
heredity and environmental forces shape personality.
Chapter 3: Personality, Perception, and Attribution 39
A.
Personality Theories
The four major theories of personality are listed in order of their time frame of study, with
trait theory research rare in today's literature.
1.
Trait Theory
Trait theory states that in order to understand individuals, we must break down
behavior patterns into a series of observable traits.
2.
Psychodynamic Theory
The second important theory is based on the work of Sigmund Freud.
Psychodynamic theory emphasizes the unconscious determinants of behavior.
3.
Humanistic Theory
Humanistic theory emphasizes individual growth and improvement, as
popularized by Carl Rogers.
4.
Integrative Approach
The integrative approach describes personality as a composite of an individual's
psychological processes.
B.
Personality Characteristics in Organizations
Hundreds of personality characteristics have been identified that are relevant to
personality. Some characteristics with interesting implications in organizations are locus
of control, self-esteem, self-efficacy, self-monitoring, and positive/negative affect.
1.
Locus of Control
The degree to which individuals perceive control over a situation being internal or
external is called locus of control. Locus of control refers to the range of beliefs
that individuals hold in terms of being controlled by self (internal locus) or
controlled by others or the situation (external locus).
2.
Self-Efficacy
Generalized self-efficacy refers to a belief about one’s own ability to deal with
events and challenges. High self-efficacy results in greater confidence in one’s
job-related abilities to function effectively on the job. Success in previous
situations leads to increased self-efficacy for present and future challenges.
40 Chapter 3: Personality, Perception, and Attribution
3.
Self-Esteem
An individual's self-worth is referred to as self-esteem. Individuals with high
self-esteem have positive feelings about themselves. Low self-esteem individuals
are strongly affected by what others think of them, and view themselves
negatively.
4.
Self-Monitoring
The extent to which people base their behavior on cues from other people and
situations is self-monitoring. Individuals high in self-monitoring pay attention to
what behavior is appropriate in certain situations by watching others and behaving
accordingly. Low self-monitoring individuals prefer that their behavior reflects
their attitudes, and are not as flexible in adapting their behavior to situational
cues.
5.
Positive/Negative Affect
Individuals exhibit attitudes about situations in a positive or negative fashion. An
individual's tendency to accentuate the positive aspects of situations is referred to
as positive affect, while those accentuating less optimistic views are referred to as
having negative affect. Employees with positive affect are absent from work less
often. Negative affect individuals report higher levels of job stress.
C.
Measuring Personality
There are a host of methods that can be used to measure and assess personality. The most
popular are projective tests, behavioral measures, and self-report questionnaires. In
projective tests, individuals describe what they see in images they are shown. Behavioral
measures involve observation of behavior in controlled situations. Individuals respond to
a series of questions in self-report questionnaires.
IV.
A POPULAR APPLICATION OF PERSONALITY THEORY IN ORGANIZATIONS:
THE MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR
Carl Jung developed the Jungian theory of individual differences. The MBTI is an instrument to
measure this theory. Jung suggested that human similarities and differences could be understood
by combining performance. People are not exclusively one way or another; there is a preference
for extraversion or introversion, just as there is for right- or left-handedness.
A.
The Preferences
The combination of the four basic preferences indicates a person’s psychological type.
Chapter 3: Personality, Perception, and Attribution 41
1.
Extraversion/Introversion
Extroverts are energized by interactions with others while introverts prefer time
alone.
2.
Sensing/Intuiting
Sensors gather information through the five senses. Intuitors gather
information through a “sixth sense.”
3.
Thinking/Feeling
Thinkers make logical, objective decisions. Feelers make decisions in a more
personal way.
4.
Judging/Perceiving
Judgers have a preference for closure and organization in their life while
perceivers are more spontaneous and try to keep their options open.
B.
The Sixteen Types
The four preferences can be combined to form sixteen psychological types. Types are not
inherently good or bad. Each has its own strengths and weaknesses.
V.
SOCIAL PERCEPTION
Social perception affects the way we view the world around us. It is the process of interpreting
information about other people, a process heavily used by management.
A.
Characteristics of the Perceiver
Several characteristics of a perceiver define one's perception of another person.
Familiarity with the person being perceived leads the perceiver to believe that he or she
understands the intentions of the individual. Attitudes and moods also affect one’s
impressions of others. The perceiver's self-concept leads to a more negative or positive
view of the attributes of others. Finally, a person’s cognitive structure, or pattern of
thinking, affects his or her perception of others.
B.
Characteristics of the Target
The person being perceived influences the social perception process through a
combination of physical appearance, verbal and nonverbal communication, and apparent
intentions.
42 Chapter 3: Personality, Perception, and Attribution
C.
Characteristics of the Situation
The social context in which you meet an individual has a great deal to do with perceiving
the individual positively or negatively. The strength of the situational cues also affects
person perception. Strong situational cues lead to the assumption that the situation
prompts a person's behavior rather than his/her own personality.
D.
Barriers to Social Perception
There are five distinct barriers to social perception, which are: selective perception,
stereotyping, first-impression error, projection, and self-fulfilling prophecies.
Selective perception is the process of selecting information that supports our individual
viewpoints while discounting information that threatens our viewpoints. This approach
leads to verbal rationalizations. When we stereotype an individual, we generalize and do
not allow his or her individual strengths to be relevant to our perception of him or her.
First impression error is the tendency to form lasting opinions about an individual based
on the initial meeting or perception. This is a major difficulty with hiring from
interviews, where the first impression lasts into the socialization process. Projection
involves the tendency to assume that other people are similar to us and that our own
values and beliefs are appropriate. In some cases, our expectations affect the way we
interact with others to produce a certain outcome. This is referred to as a self-fulfilling
prophecy.
E.
Impression Management
The conscious monitoring and manipulation of others' opinions is referred to as
impression management.
VI.
ATTRIBUTION IN ORGANIZATIONS
As humans, we are naturally curious about the causes of our behavior and the behavior of others.
The process of assigning causality to behavior is referred to as attribution.
A.
Internal and External Attributions
The process of connecting behavior and performance to specific internal or external
sources of control is known as attribution.
B.
Attributional Biases
There are two common errors that affect the attribution process: self-serving bias, and the
fundamental attribution error. Fundamental attribution error is the tendency to make
attributions to internal causes when focusing on someone else's behavior. Self-serving
Chapter 3: Personality, Perception, and Attribution 43
bias is the tendency to attribute one's own successes to internal causes and one's failures
to external causes.
VII.
MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: USING PERSONALITY, PERCEPTION, AND
ATTRIBUTION AT WORK
VIII.
LOOKING BACK: Brinker International
CHAPTER SUMMARY









Individual differences are factors that make individuals unique. They include personalities,
perceptions, skills and abilities, attitudes, values, and ethics.
The trait theory, psychodynamic theory, humanistic theory, and integrative approach are all
personality theories.
Managers should understand personality because of its effect on behavior. Several
characteristics affect behavior in organizations, including locus of control, self-esteem, selfefficacy, self-monitoring, and positive/negative affect.
Personality has a stronger influence in weak situations, where there are few cues to guide
behavior.
One useful framework for understanding individual differences is type theory, developed by
Carl Jung and measured by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI).
Social perception is the process of interpreting information about another person. It is
influenced by characteristics of the perceiver, the target, and the situation.
Barriers to social perception include selective perception, stereotyping, first impression error,
projection, and self-fulfilling prophecies.
Impression management techniques such as name-dropping, managing one's appearance, selfdescriptions, flattery, favors, and agreement are used by individuals to control others'
impressions of them.
Attribution is the process of determining the cause of behavior. It is used extensively by
managers, especially in evaluating performance.
REVIEW QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS
1. What are the individual differences, and why should managers understand them?
In order to understand human behavior, we must know something about the person and about the
situation. Because no two individuals are alike, managers face the challenge of working with
people who possess a multitude of individual characteristics. Important individual differences
include personality characteristics, social perceptions and attributions of causality. The more a
manager understands these differences, the better he or she can work with others.
44 Chapter 3: Personality, Perception, and Attribution
2. Define personality, and describe its origins.
Personality is a relatively stable set of characteristics that influences an individual's behavior.
Family influences, cultural influences, educational influences, and environmental forces all shape
personality.
3. Describe four theories of personality and what each contributes to our knowledge of
personality.
The four theories of personality are trait theory, psychodynamic theory, humanistic theory, and
the integrative approach. Trait theory was the earliest approach toward studying personality, and
in part because of criticism of its approach, it provided the basis for other types of theories.
Psychodynamic theory, based on the work of Freud, emphasizes the unconscious determinants of
behavior. Humanistic theory emphasizes individual growth. The integrative approach is the
most comprehensive because it includes a variety of psychological processes.
4. Describe the eight preferences of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. How does this instrument
measure Carl Jung's ideas?
Jung's theory of individual differences is put into application through the Myers-Briggs
instrument. The initial division he proposed was between extroverted and introverted
individuals. He added the measurements of sensing and intuiting, which depict how individuals
gather information. The third set includes thinking and feeling, styles of decision-making, and
the fourth set reflects one's orientation to the outer world.
5. What factors influence social perception? What are the barriers to social perception?
Perception is influenced by all things with which we come into contact, and helps us understand
our surroundings and ourselves. Selective perception is the tendency to choose information that
supports our viewpoints. Stereotyping is a generalization made about a group of people, and is
often inaccurate. First impression error is the tendency to form lasting opinions about an
individual based on initial perceptions. Projection involves the tendency to assume that other
people are similar to us and that our own values and beliefs are appropriate. Self-fulfilling
prophecies are expectations that become reality.
6. Describe the errors that affect the attribution process.
Fundamental attribution error is the tendency to make attributions to internal causes when
focusing on someone else's behavior. Self-serving bias is the tendency to attribute one's own
successes to internal causes and one's failure to external causes.
Chapter 3: Personality, Perception, and Attribution 45
DISCUSSION AND COMMUNICATION QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS
1. What contributions can high self-monitors make in organizations? Low self-monitors?
High self-monitors would do well in sales jobs or in any position that requires meeting the public
because of their attentiveness to cues from other people and from situations. Low self-monitors
would do well in jobs that are consistent with their fundamental beliefs. Because they prefer that
their behavior is consistent with their attitudes, they would be uncomfortable in certain sales
situations, such as having to sell a product they didn't believe in.
2. How can managers improve their perceptual skills?
Managers need to be aware of characteristics in themselves, in situations, and in other people that
affect social perception. They need to understand the barriers to accurate perception and guard
against these barriers.
3. Which has the stronger impact on personality: heredity or environment?
This is a good discussion question in class, particularly if there are psychology and sociology
students taking the organizational behavior course. There are good arguments for either position.
Both have an impact.
4. How can managers make more accurate attributions?
Managers can make more accurate attributions by gathering information carefully and possessing
an awareness of self-serving bias and fundamental attribution error.
5. How can managers encourage self-efficacy in employees?
Managers can provide job challenges, coaching and counseling for improved performance, and
reward employees' achievements to enhance self-efficacy.
6. How can self-serving bias and the fundamental attribution error be avoided?
Awareness is the first step. Careful information gathering and conscious attention to one's own
attributional tendencies are essential. Owning up to one's failures is important.
7. You have been asked to develop a training program for interviewers. An integral part of this
training program focuses on helping interviewers develop better social perception skills. Write
an outline for this section of the training program. Be sure to address barriers to social
perception and ways to avoid these barriers.
During class discussion, encourage students to share interview experiences they have had in
which misperceptions played a role. This would also be a good assignment to refer back to
during the discussion of learning in Chapter 6.
46 Chapter 3: Personality, Perception, and Attribution
8. Form groups of four to six, and then split each group in half. Debate the origins of
personality, with one half taking the position that personality is inherited, and the other half
taking the position that personality is formed by the environment. Each half should also discuss
the implications of its position for managers.
To enhance the debate, this assignment could be made prior to the class in which the debate will
occur so that students have the opportunity to conduct outside research on the different
perspectives.
ETHICS QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS
1. What are the ethical uses of personality tests? What are the unethical uses?
Hiring, firing, or promoting someone on the basis of a personality test is not only unethical, it is
illegal. Students may have interesting examples of tests that they have heard have been
administered. Personality tests should be used to enhance one's understanding of self and others.
2. Suppose a manager makes an incorrect attribution for an employee's poor performance (for
instance, the manager cites equipment failure), and peers know the employee is at fault. Should
they blow the whistle on their colleague?
The preferable way to approach the situation is through problem reporting, either with the
supervisor or an established outlet in the organization. (Whistle-blowing typically refers to going
outside the organization.) Perhaps the co-workers should try to assist the employee before
reporting him or her.
3. Suppose one of your colleagues wants to eliminate all biases and stereotypes from the hiring
process. He suggests that only résumés be used, with no names or other identifying data – only
experience and education. What are the ethical consequences of this approach? Would any
group be unfairly disadvantaged by this approach?
It might be admirable and a decent gesture to approach equality in this fashion, but it is also
naïve. Although the interviewing technique is flawed with first impression biases and selection
biases, it is also a way to ascertain the fit between the position and the individual. This approach
may disadvantage those who may have developed appropriate knowledge and skills in ways that
cannot be easily described in a résumé.
4. Suppose a manager makes a misattribution of an employee's poor performance. What are the
ethical consequences of this?
These misattributions could be a result of sexist, racist, homophobic, or elitist attitudes, or other
biases. When managers make misattributions based on biases, employees are treated unfairly and,
in addition to ethical consequences, those managers may even expose themselves and their
companies to legal consequences.
Chapter 3: Personality, Perception, and Attribution 47
CHALLENGES
3.1 ARE YOU A HIGH OR LOW SELF-MONITOR?
Students should complete this challenge prior to class discussion on self-monitoring so that their
responses will not be biased. During class discussion, students can be asked how their selfmonitoring tendency might influence their performance on the job.
3.2 SEX ROLE STEREOTYPES
Completing this challenge will help students understand their own beliefs about sex roles. High
scores indicate a strong belief in traditional sex roles and a tendency to stereotype those roles.
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES
3.1 MBTI TYPES AND MANAGEMENT STYLES
This exercise illustrates David Keirsey's temperaments and their related management styles.
Students should complete the MBTI prior to the exercise. Most university counseling centers can
administer the MBTI and provide individual results for students.
To do the exercise, students should be assigned to groups according to their temperament: NF,
NT, SJ, or SP. The rather vague task students are assigned is intended to bring out the different
management styles of the various temperaments. The exercise works best when students are not
aware of their MBTI types.
Instructors who are unfamiliar with the MBTI may wish to have someone who has completed the
MBTI certification training help debrief the students at the end of the exercise.
To complete the exercise, do the following:
1. Have students complete the MBTI. Score the questionnaires if the short version is used.
2. Assign students to groups based on their temperaments.
3. Have students complete the group task.
4. Ask each group to report to the class.
5. As each group reports, reveal its temperament and management style, using the information
that follows.
6. Hand out individual MBTI profiles and discuss them.
MBTI TEMPERAMENTS AND LEADERSHIP STYLES
NF -- NFs are catalysts. Their focus is on individuals within the organization and on individual
growth. They use a very participative style and are often referred to as charismatic. NFs are
verbally fluent and are superb at giving feedback. They are good listeners and talented at
managing interpersonal transactions. They see the possibilities in people and can often turn
liabilities into assets. NFs are likely to become worn out and overextended by their focus on
relationships. They have a high need for approval and may seem to others to be too anxious to
48 Chapter 3: Personality, Perception, and Attribution
please. They need positive feedback and despise impersonal treatment. They value harmony and
cooperation.
NT -- NTs are visionaries. Their focus is on designing systems and the organization's mission.
They believe the organization must grow and develop, and they place a strong emphasis on
competence and intelligence. They expect a lot of themselves and of others. NTs welcome
change, and focus on possibilities. They can easily see the long-range implications for the
organization. They tend to be on the cutting edge of things and may be nonconformists. They
are the portrait painters of ideas and encourage ideas in their employees. They also enjoy solving
problems. NTs love the creative process, but once it is finished they prefer to let someone else
take over to run the system. They value competence and achievement, and they may ignore the
feelings of others unknowingly.
SJ -- SJs are traditionalists. Their focus is on the organization and its hierarchy, and they are
masters at defining policies, rules, and procedures. As managers, they are patient, thorough,
steady, and reliable. They value caution and accuracy in work. SJs preserve the traditions in life
and have a keen sense of social responsibility. They are loyal and industrious but may be
irritated when others do not play by their rules. They are decisive and are happiest when they can
plan their work and work their plan. SJs run efficient meetings and want colleagues to get to the
point and stick to it. They can become impatient when projects are delayed and prefer sensible,
stable, reliable colleagues.
SP -- SPs are troubleshooters. They are good at putting out fires and solving problems. They
are very realistic, and to them everything is negotiable. They display an open, flexible style and
focus on the present time. SPs like change and are very adaptable. They dislike being told how
to do things and may become impatient with bureaucracy. If there are no fires to put out, SPs
may make mischief. They do not enjoy maintaining the status quo but want to be where the
action is. SPs listen to their superiors but may not do what they are told. They are flexible and
open-minded in relations with others, and they are easy to get along with. They may appear hard
to predict because of their flexibility.
To learn more about management styles, we suggest the following:
D. Keirsey and M. Bates, Please Understand Me (Prometheus Nemesis, Del Mar, CA: 1978).
R. Benfara and J. Knox, Understanding Your Management Style (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington
Books, 1991).
O. Kroeger and J. Thuesen, Type Talk at Work (New York: Delacorte Press, 1992).
3.2 STEREOTYPES IN EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEWS
Instructor's Notes:
The following exercise illustrates the influence of stereotypes on employment interviews.
Students are given a transcript of an interview in which the candidate is applying for a job as a
laborer. The transcript reflects a number of characteristics of the interviewee that are consistent
with the negative stereotype of African-Americans (the applicant is poor, has a criminal record,
Chapter 3: Personality, Perception, and Attribution 49
and is behind on child support payments). The transcript also presents several items of
information inconsistent with the stereotype (the applicant is Catholic, drives a pickup truck, and
likes hockey games). Further, information is presented that is not stereotypical (the applicant
watches television comedies, is from a small town, and is applying for a blue-collar job).
One-half of the students should be handed a version of the transcript that states that the job
candidate is white. The other half of the students should be handed the version of the transcript
that states that the job candidate is African-American. The transcript should be collected after
five minutes. One week (or at least several days) later, ask students to write down all they
remember about the job candidates. Students who read about an African-American will be more
likely to recall the stereotypical African-American characteristics.
Students are asked to review the transcript that records an applicant's interview for a job as a
laborer. They are asked to memorize as much of the interview as possible. They are then asked
to write down everything they can remember about the job candidate. As you photocopy the
following interview transcript, include version 1 of the introduction with half the copies and
version 2 with the other half.
Discussion Questions:
1. In what ways does the exercise show that stereotypes can influence interviewers, even without
their awareness?
2. Many people believe stereotypes are motivated by hate or insecurity. How do these exercise
results fit this idea?
3. What can be done to reduce the effects of stereotypes in interviews?
4. If stereotypes help you remember information that is consistent with the stereotype and help
you ignore information that is inconsistent with the stereotype, how can stereotypes be changed?
50 Chapter 3: Personality, Perception, and Attribution
INTRODUCTION:
Mr. Harris is a twenty-seven year old African-American male. He is applying for a job working
on a loading dock. Mr. Harris is interviewing as part of a social services program.
INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT
(I = interviewer; A = applicant)
I: Please tell me a little bit about your last job.
A: Well, the job was basically a blue-collar job. I worked in a factory doing janitor work mostly.
Second shift for most of the time. I didn't mind the job too much. I've been out of work for quite
a while now. I guess you could say I was at the poverty level for the last year.
I: Do you have a criminal record?
A: Well, yeah, but the crime wasn't too serious. I spent a few weeks in jail for breaking and
entering when I was a kid. Me and some friends broke into a department store. Pretty stupid.
I: Tell me a little bit about your education, Mr. Harris.
A: I finished high school in 1980. I was brought up in a Catholic family in a small southern
country town. So I went to a Catholic school. Kind of unusual I guess. I used to really give the
nuns a hard time (laughs). I was thinkin' about going to college but never made it.
I: Have you and your family adjusted well to moving into the area?
A: Yeah, I like New Jersey. I don't live with my wife no....er, a ...any more. I hope to see my
three kids pretty soon. Maybe bring them up here. Haven't seen 'em for years. I really need the
job because I'm behind on my child support.
I: What have you been doing in your spare time?
A: Well, I been looking around the area quite a bit. I've been drivin' my truck, you know just
checkin' things out. I went to a hockey game the other night. Had a good time. Otherwise I
watch a little TV. Watch a lot of comedies.
I: Please tell me about your accomplishments.
A: Well, I was a sort of a star athlete in school. Our team went to the state tournament. I
suppose I could have been a college player. Besides that, I won a writing contest when I was in
high school. It was for the region. Oh yeah, I got a commendation from my last job. They
wanted me to train the new guys.
I: What are your greatest weaknesses?
A: I could probably take orders better. But I don't get too upset. Maybe I should read a little
more. 'Been a long time since school.
Chapter 3: Personality, Perception, and Attribution 51
INTRODUCTION:
Mr. Harris is a twenty-seven year old white male. He is applying for a job working on a loading
dock. Mr. Harris is interviewing as part of a social services program.
INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT
(I = interviewer; A = applicant)
I: Please tell me a little bit about your last job.
A: Well, the job was basically a blue-collar job. I worked in a factory doing janitor work mostly.
Second shift for most of the time. I didn't mind the job too much. I've been out of work for quite
a while now. I guess you could say I was at the poverty level for the last year.
I: Do you have a criminal record?
A: Well, yeah, but the crime wasn't too serious. I spent a few weeks in jail for breaking and
entering when I was a kid. Me and some friends broke into a department store. Pretty stupid.
I: Tell me a little bit about your education, Mr. Harris.
A: I finished high school in 1980. I was brought up in a Catholic family in a small southern
country town. So I went to a Catholic school. Kind of unusual I guess. I used to really give the
nuns a hard time (laughs). I was thinkin' about going to college but never made it.
I: Have you and your family adjusted well to moving into the area?
A: Yeah, I like New Jersey. I don't live with my wife no....er, a ...any more. I hope to see my
three kids pretty soon. Maybe bring them up here. Haven't seen 'em for years. I really need the
job because I'm behind on my child support.
I: What have you been doing in your spare time?
A: Well, I been looking around the area quite a bit. I've been drivin' my truck, you know just
checkin' things out. I went to a hockey game the other night. Had a good time. Otherwise I
watch a little TV. Watch a lot of comedies.
I: Please tell me about your accomplishments.
A: Well, I was a sort of a star athlete in school. Our team went to the state tournament. I
suppose I could have been a college player. Besides that, I won a writing contest when I was in
high school. It was for the region. Oh yeah, I got a commendation from my last job. They
wanted me to train the new guys.
I: What are your greatest weaknesses?
A: I could probably take orders better. But I don't get too upset. Maybe I should read a little
more. 'Been a long time since school.
52 Chapter 3: Personality, Perception, and Attribution
The MBTI - What it is!
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a self-reporting, nonjudgmental (does not assign a
"good" or "bad" connotation) psychological instrument. It is designed to sort people according to
their preferences in four areas: where people get their energy (internally or externally), how
people perceive their surroundings (detailed or intuitive), the basis of their decision making
(logic or value driven), and the lifestyle used to deal with their environment (judging or
perceiving).
The MBTI is based on Carl Jung's research. Dr. Jung believed that an individual's behavior
reflects a pattern that indicates a person's preference for their energy source, data collection, and
decision making. Isabel Briggs Myers and Katherine Briggs developed the MBTI instrument
based on Jung's work, personal observation, and extensive research. The developers added a
dimension to Jung's theory that deals with a person's lifestyle choices.
Using an analogy is the best way to define the concept of preference. We sort people into leftand right-handedess. Most of us clearly show a preference for the use of one hand over the other.
In the process we develop the skills, strengths, and abilities of one hand and underdevelop the
other. We still use both hands, hence one becomes dominant and the other becomes auxiliary.
People develop their personalities in the same manner. You are born with certain traits, and if
your environment supports that development, you will have a well-developed dominant trait, and
most likely, a less-well-developed auxiliary trait. In addition you will have other parts of your
personality that receive very little attention. These traits surface occasionally – usually when a
situation exists that puts our dominant and auxiliary traits at a disadvantage. For example, when
something happens that really upsets us, our initial response is usually much different than our
"normal" way of doing things.
The self-reporting and self-validating done via the MBTI sorts people on the four areas. The first
area is extraversion or introversion. The person who indicates a preference for extraversion is
one whose energy is directed outward and prefers to interact with people and things. A person
who indicates a preference for introversion is one whose energy is directed inward and prefers
concepts and ideas. In the former case, a person "speaks before he/she thinks" and in the latter
case, a person "thinks before he/she speaks."
The second area that the MBTI addresses is that of perceiving or data collection (sensing or
intuition). Those people who indicate a preference for sensing rely on actual data and pay
attention to details. Those folks who indicate a preference for intuition rely on inspiration and
look at the "big picture."
The third area addresses the decision-making process that people use. Those people who prefer
thinking base their decision on logic and principles. On the other hand, those who prefer feeling
base their decisions on human values and harmonious relationships.
Chapter 3: Personality, Perception, and Attribution 53
The final area that the MBTI addresses is that of lifestyle. Here people indicate their preferred
and most often used mental preference (perceiving or judging). Those who prefer judgment
indicate that decisiveness and task or project completion are important. Those who prefer
perception indicate that curiosity and starting a task or project is of value.
What benefits do the students get from using the MBTI? The MBTI results are individually
affirming, eye opening, barrier breaking, and communication enhancing. The emphasis is always
on the strength of the preference and the fact that differences in people are strengths not
weaknesses. Arguably the biggest single benefit is that the results of the MBTI affirm that we are
all unique and that each of us has a gift to offer. It helps people understand themselves and those
with whom they come in contact. Additionally, because the MBTI does not put people in a "box,"
people have a better understanding of the basis for certain behaviors and a healthy appreciation
for the uniqueness that each person offers.
To administer the MBTI you need to be a "qualified user." Two methods exist: taking the correct
tests and measurements graduate course, or participating in a qualifying workshop. Most
universities have certified personnel in the testing department who can assist you with testing. If
you wish to become a qualified user, two of the companies that offer training are:
Type Resources, Inc
101 Chesnut Street #135
Gaithersburg, MD 20877
(301) 963-1283
Dr. Hartzler, owner and senior instructor for Type Resources, wrote her dissertation concerning
the MBTI. She has extensive publications addressing the practical aspects and applications of
the MBTI.
Otto Kroeger Associates
3605 Chain Bridge Road #C
Fairfax, VA 22030
(703) 591-6284
Mr Kroeger is the co-author of Type Talk and Type Talk at Work. He is currently working on an
additional book dealing with type and relationships.
We highly recommend that the instructor and all assistants take the MBTI and receive qualified
feedback. We've placed a series of MBTI-related exercises in strategic points throughout the
instructor's manual to show the versatility and depth of the information gained through the use of
the MBTI. We've developed the experiential exercises to significantly enhance the material in
the following chapters: Communication, Leadership, Motivation, Decision Making, Conflict
Resolution, Power, Stress and Time Management, and Managing Change.
Although each exercise can stand alone, we suggest that the MBTI exercises be used in
conjunction with at least one challenge from the text. The MBTI gives students insightful clues
54 Chapter 3: Personality, Perception, and Attribution
on the behaviors of others--it helps to answer the question "why did they act that way?" We
believe that it is highly beneficial to explore the conceptual material through reading, lecturing,
and practicing and then to offer a possible explanation of the behavioral parameters that
influenced those results. We suggest therefore that the MBTI exercises be used after you've
conducted an exercise that reinforces and highlights the concept you are teaching.
Exercise Format
The MBTI exercises are constructed using a format and descriptors that may be unfamiliar to
some management or organizational behavior faculty. Here's a brief explanation of the format
and unfamiliar descriptors:
Exercise Learning Objectives:
Traditional meaning applies. These objectives form the basis for the exercise and provide the
central point for any modifications you feel are necessary.
Exercise Overview:
A "quick review" of the exercise. This section should give you a flavor of what will happen and
how it will happen. Additionally, it gives the instructor an idea of the core competency required
to use the exercise.
Exercise Description:
Here we have the step-by-step instructions. We recommend that the instructor read all of them
before proceeding. In some cases, these instructions may be too detailed and in others, not
detailed enough. We've tried to hit the "happy medium" so that the instructor has sufficient
knowledge to conduct the exercise but does not feel constrained to "follow the yellow brick
road."
What the instructor should expect:
We've provided a capsule version of the expected outcomes. Please use this as a frame of
reference. Although no two groups will have exactly the same outcome, the instructor should see
a definite similarity between the on-going exercise and these brief descriptions. The instructor
wrap-up is based somewhat on the expected outcomes and how close or how far off the mark this
particular class was. Over time, each instructor will most likely see slightly different outcomes.
We encourage you to record that data for future reference.
Instructor's Summary:
Based on the expected outcomes, this section provides a mini-summary of the lesson. We're
giving you, the instructor, a guide on which to base your final remarks. We do not expect you to
Chapter 3: Personality, Perception, and Attribution 55
read this, but rather to use it to help you focus your thoughts and ideas. We believe that even if
the exercise goes "bust" you can accomplish your learning objectives with a solid wrap-up.
Report Out:
Reporting out is a process used to have the students verbally state the results of their exercise.
Generally, these mini-summaries demonstrate the learning that has occurred. During the
reporting out process and after the students are finished, we recommend that the instructor
highlight key areas and show the similarities and differences between groups. We've found that
the instructor actively summarizing in this fashion helps the students retain the information as
well as providing fuel for the final summary.
Observers:
The role of the observer (student or instructor) is to watch the interaction that occurs in the
group. The observer should be looking for such things as non-verbal actions, tone, pitch, rate,
word choice, stress points, and the like. In those instances where a student observer is used, we
recommend that the student observer give feedback to the group first, and to the class second.
Generally, it takes about 5 minutes for the group feedback as well as 3 minutes for each observer
to give feedback to the entire class. Time permitting, we encourage the instructor to have all
observers report to the class. However, in those instances where the time remaining is
insufficient, the instructor should call on one or two observers to report out and then wrap-up the
exercise.
References
For personal study, we suggest that you read the following books:
Gifts Differing, I.B. Myers with P. B. Myers, Consulting Psychologists Press
Portraits of Temperament and Please Understand Me, D. Keirsey, Prometheus Nemesis Books
Type Talk and Type Talk at Work, O. Kroeger, Delacorte Press
Psychological Types, C.G. Jung, Princeton University Press
Applications of Myers-Briggs Type Indicator in Higher Education, J. A. Provost, Consulting
Psychologists Press
56 Chapter 3: Personality, Perception, and Attribution
ALTERNATIVE EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE
IDENTIFYING COGNITIVE STYLES
Instructor's Notes:
This exercise adapts the cognitive styles to situations that require students to identify and define.
This exercise is probably better as homework to be discussed in class after completion. Each
method of handling the crisis is perfectly valid. Point out to students there is no "best" cognitive
style. Each is valuable in organizations. The cognitive styles in the exercise are as follows:
Mona is NF; Denise is NT; Bill is ST, and Blake is SF.
Chapter 3: Personality, Perception, and Attribution 57
IDENTIFYING COGNITIVE STYLES
Adapted from O. Kroeger and J. M. Thuesen, Type Talk at Work, New York:
Delacorte Press, 1992, 165-166.
Assume that it is Friday at 3:00 p.m. A customer calls to say that a major shipment of computers
you sent a week ago has not arrived, and that they must have the computer by noon Monday.
Failing to deliver the computers will result in losing the client. The manager must either find the
shipment, or reship the computers and make sure they arrive on time.
Below are descriptions of how four different managers would react to this crisis. Read their
reactions, and answer the questions that follow.
BILL accepts the reality that the shipment of computers is lost and that he shouldn't waste time
tracking it down. He sees no alternative but to put together a new shipment and send it out
immediately. He expects all his workers to pitch in and stay late to get the new shipment out.
MONA considers the possibility that the original shipment might be recovered, as this would
save everyone the trouble of having to prepare a new shipment. She attempts to motivate a team
of workers to work together to track down the shipment. At the same time, she puts together
another team to work out a backup plan. She works back and forth between the two teams, trying
to inconvenience everyone as little as possible.
DENISE tries to track down the original shipment because no matter what happens it will have to
be located. She sees putting together another shipment as the only reliable solution. At the same
time, she is going to develop a strategy for evaluating shipping operations to ensure that this
problem doesn't come up again.
BLAKE writes off the original shipment and feels in reality there's no time to waste looking for
it. He polls his workers to see who can work late to put together a new shipment, and if no one
volunteers, he will do it himself.
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING:
1. Bill's cognitive style is _____________________.
What clues were evident in his handling of the crisis?
2. Mona's cognitive style is ____________________.
What clues were evident in her handling of the crisis?
3. Denise's cognitive style is _____________________.
What clues were evident in her handling of the crisis?
4. Blake's cognitive style is _____________________.
What clues were evident in his handling of the crisis?
58 Chapter 3: Personality, Perception, and Attribution
EXTRA EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES
The following alternative exercises to supplement the material in the textbook can be obtained
from:
Marcic, Dorothy, Seltzer, Joseph, & Vaill, Peter. Organizational Behavior: Experiences and
Cases, 6th Ed. South Western College Publishing Company, 2001.
Incongruent Perceptions: The Case of the “Other Systems Group”. p. 29-30.
Time: 30 minutes.
Purpose: To recognize differences in perception and to understand the impact of
those differences on communications and decision making.
The Case of the Predictable Bikers. p. 31-32. Time: 25-35 minutes.
Purpose: To illustrate how initial perceptions influence subsequent attempts at
problem solution or in communications with others.
Fandt, Patricia M. Management Skills: Practice and Experience. West Publishing Company,
1994.
In-Basket Exercise 2: Listening to Others. p. 15-16.
In-Basket Exercise 4: Eliciting Ideas, Feelings, and Perceptions from Others. p. 19-20.
CASE QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS
TRILOGY SOFTWARE, INC.
1. Using the various personality characteristics discussed in this chapter, how would you
describe Joe Liemandt’s personality?
Liemandt could be described as having an internal locus of control, high self-efficacy, and
high self-esteem. His willingness to work long hours, take considerable risks, and
passionately pursue an idea are all indicators of an internal locus of control—Liemandt’s
belief that he controls what happens to him. High self-efficacy and high self-esteem are
reflected in Liemandt’s ambitious pursuit of a dream and the success that resulted from
fulfilling that dream.
Based on the case description of Liemandt’s attitudes and behavior, one might surmise that
he is either an ENTP or an ENTJ according to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. As Table 3.3
indicates, ENTPs are characterized as follows:



“One exciting challenge after another.”
Argues both sides of a point to learn.
Brinksmanship.
Chapter 3: Personality, Perception, and Attribution 59
 Tests the limits.
 Enthusiastic.
 New ideas.
 Most inventive.

Liemandt’s dropping out of Stanford to develop an innovative software product relates to
being inventive and pursuing new ideas. His risk-taking propensity relates to brinksmanship
and testing the limits. His approach to training recruits reflects testing the limits as well as
being inventive and enthusiastic.
ENTJs are described as:
 “Life’s natural leaders.”
 Visionary.
 Gregarious.
 Argumentative.
 Systems planners.
 Takes charge.
 Low tolerance for incompetence.
 Most commanding.
Liemandt’s track record of developing a highly successful software business in less than a
decade speaks to visionary and leadership qualities. The software development itself as well
as the process of developing newly hired employees reflects the systems planning. The
Trilogy University experiences with new hires also attest to Liemandt’s commanding
presence and take charge attitude.
Liemandt’s personality also can be characterized by considering the meanings of the
dimensions underlying the ENTP and ENTJ types. Table 3.2 provides characteristics that the
students can use in describing Liemandt’s personality.
2. What perceptions have you formed of Joe Liemandt? How do you think your perceptions are
affected by characteristics of you as the perceiver and Liemandt as the perceptual target? To
what extent have the barriers to social perception influenced your view of Liemandt?
In addressing this question students, could identify the two or three most positive perceptions
they have of Liemandt, and the two or three most negative perceptions. Then using the
framework provided by Figure 3.2, they can analyze the perceptual impact of characteristics
of the perceiver, characteristics of the target, and barriers.
3. Which barriers to social perception seem to influence Joe Liemandt’s attitudes and
behavior? Explain your answer.
Implicit personality theory and the self-fulfilling prophecy can be used to explain Liemandt’s
attitudes and behavior.
60 Chapter 3: Personality, Perception, and Attribution
Implicit personality theory refers to the perception that we form about other people based on
our own mini-theories of how people behave. Liemandt’s high-risk preference influences his
judgments about those who are risk takers as well as those who are risk avoiders. Powerful
evidence in support of this is found in his statement that “You’ve got to be willing to jump
off a cliff for your idea.”
The self-fulfilling prophecy involves the situation in which our expectations about people
influence our interactions with them in such a way that our expectations are fulfilled.
Liemandt’s expectations about risk takers influence how Trilogy University operates, and in
turn the extent to which successful new recruits strengthen their risk-taking propensities. The
self-fulfilling prophecy is captured in his beliefs about giving new recruits a lot of
responsibility. Liemandt says, “What matters is the ability to learn, adapt and figure out what
the answer is. You’ve got to be willing to get in over your head and struggle to make things
happen.” So Liemandt deliberately creates situations like this so people can learn to deal
with all the responsibility that is thrown at them.
4. Suppose that you were offered a job at Trilogy. Given the information contained in the case,
would you be inclined to accept the job offer? Explain your answer.
“Only risk takers need apply!” perhaps best describes the key ingredient to fitting in at
Trilogy. This question provides the opportunity for students to examine their own risk-taking
propensities, and to consider the implications of working for a company that embraces risk
taking versus one that is risk averse.
Trilogy employees must also be willing to assume responsibility—lots of it, early in their
tenure with the company. Again, students should be asked to examine their own desires and
capabilities in relation to the issue of shouldering significant responsibilities early in their
careers.
Role Plays
Additional role plays relevant to the material in this chapter are located in Appendix A of this
instructor's manual.