Biggs, J. (1998). Learning from the Confucian heritage: So size doesn’t matter?
International Journal of Educational Research, 29, 723-738. (Printed)
This paper tries to explain the paradox that students from Confucian heritage cultures (CHC), who are perceived by western researchers as learning under an ‘ineffective’ learning environment, consistently outperform Western students in many academic subjects. In the paper, the author addresses two common western misperceptions of CHC classrooms, namely:
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Confusion between rote learning and repetitive learning – the latter is mistakenly taken as a form of surface learning
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Misconception on the relationship between teaching methods and students’ learning process in CHC classrooms.
The author concludes that CHC classroom works differently from Western ones. The attempt to generalize, in isolation from other systemic factor, the effect of class size on students’ learning is misleading.
Biggs, J. (1996). Western misperceptions of the Confucian-heritage learning culture. In D. Watkins, & J. Biggs (Eds.), The Chinese learner: Cultural,
psychological, and contextual influences (pp. 45-67). Hong Kong: CERC &
ACER. (Printed)
This paper reviews the concepts defining a good learning environment. The authors point out the common Western misperceptions about the ‘low quality’ of Confucian heritage culture (CHC) learning – which previous western studies mistaken repetitive learning (kind of deep learning strategy) for rote learning. Also, there exist gaps between western and CHC views about source of learning motivation and attributions for success and failure etc. In the end, the authors try to redefine a ‘good learning environment’ with the support of the 3p model
(presage-process-product model).
Salili, F. (1996). Accepting personal responsibility for learning. In D. Watkins, &
J. Biggs (Eds.), The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological, and contextual
influences (pp. 85-105). Hong Kong: CERC & ACER. (Printed)
This chapter reviews the relevant literature on determinants of achievement among Chinese. The author bases on the evidence of previous studies, draws the following conclusions:

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Chinese achievement orientation is based firmly on collective values, which individual academic achievement is perceived as closely related to achievement in family and social life.
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Effort rather than ability is perceived as the key to academic success by the Chinese.
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Lack of praise from parents, together with high expectation from parents has developed strong internal motivation for achievement among Chinese students, while
 This, on the other hand, may contain students’ social and emotional development.
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Pressure for conformity under the authoritarian education system may not be conductive to the development of creative and analytical thinking among Chinese students.
Tang, C., & Biggs, J. (1996). How Hong Kong students cope with assessment. In
D. Watkins, & J. Biggs (Eds.), The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological,
and contextual influences (pp. 159-182). Hong Kong: CERC & ACER.
(Printed)
This article reviews the previous studies on the effects of assessment on the learning of Hong
Kong students. The authors identify several phenomena of teaching and learning under the
‘backwash’ effect of the examination system:
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Weakness of qualitative assessment practice in schools
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Cue seeking culture among Hong Kong students
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Understanding for the course requirement
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Target-specific strategies developed by students when coping with quantitative assessment. etc.
The authors comment that ‘Hong Kong students are excellent at playing the game while remaining uncorrupted themselves’ (p.178). The better students are able to develop deep-related strategies when facing a novel assessment format.