POLITICS & ECONOMICS IN LATE MEDIEVAL SOCIETY
(JOAN OF ARC & THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR)
I.
LATE MEDIEVAL SOCIETY
A.
GENERAL REMARKS
1.
WAR, VIOLENCE, LAWLESSNESS & CRIME ENDEMIC TO LATE MEDIEVAL SOCIETY
2.
EVEN RECREATION FOR ALL CLASSES REFLECTED THIS
3.
LATE MIDDLE AGES WILL SEE WAR BETWEEN FRANCE & ENGLAND
4.
CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND KNOWN AS WAR OF THE ROSES
5.
PEASANT REVOLTS IN FRANCE & ENGLAND
B.
LEGEND OF ROBIN HOOD
1.
TALE OR LEGEND OF ROBIN HOOD
2.
SYMBOLIC OF LAWLESSNESS OF LATE MEDIEVAL WORLD
3.
SCHOLARS DEBATE WHETHER ROBIN HOOD REAL OR NOT
4.
WHETHER ROBIN HOOD FRIEND OF GENTRY OR PEASANT
a.
ROBIN HOOD BEING HERO OF GENTRY & NOT PEASANT HAS NOW BEEN
ACCEPTED BY MOST MEDIEVALISTS
5.
TODAY WE SEE ROBIN HOOD AS STEREOTYPE FOR ROBBING RICH & GIVING TO
POOR
a.
SHERWOOD FOREST, LITTLE JOHN ADDED OVER YEARS
b.
LIKE MERLIN, LANCELOT, GUINIVERE, ROUND TABLE & KNIGHTS ADDED
TO KING ARTHUR TALES
c.
THANKS TO EVOLUTION OF LEGEND OVER CENTURIES & HOLLYWOOD
6.
IN LATE MEDIEVAL ENGLAND ROBIN HOOD STOOD FOR SOMETHING MORE
7.
HAD ELEMENTS WE FIND FAMILIAR TO OUR OWN SOCIETY
a.
GLORIFICATION OF VIOLENCE
b.
SOCIETY WHERE MEN TOOK TO ROBBERY & PILLAGE
(1)
UNDER PRESSURE OF FAMINE & OTHER ADVERSE CIRCUMSTANCES
c.
SOCIETY WHERE CRIME TOLERATED
d.
ALBEIT LOCAL JURIES PROTECTED CRIMINALS
e.
GANGS OF KNIGHTLY BANDITS MIGHT GAIN ROYAL PARDON FOR
EXTORTION, KIDNAPPING & MURDER
f.
CONCEPT OF FUR-COLLAR CRIME
(1)
OR TODAY WHITE COLLAR CRIME
8.
ROBIN HOOD DECKED WITH CONVENTIONS OF DAY:
a.
CHIVALRY TOWARDS WOMEN
b.
GENEROSITY
c.
COURTESY
d.
LOYALTY
e.
OBEDIENCE
9.
BUT STILL VIOLENCE
10.
WHEN ROBIN KILLS SHERIFF OF NOTTINGHAM BY BEHEADING HIM
a.
& SHOOTS OTHERS WITH BOW & ARROWS
11.
VIOLENT DEATH IS ACCEPTED WITH ALMOST CASUAL BRUTALITY
12.
FROM EARLIEST TIMES LEGEND RESPONDED TO A NUMBER OF PROBLEMS &
CONCERNS IN SOCIETY
a.
ANTI-FEELING AGAINST MONASTIC WEALTH
b.
AGAINST ROYAL FOREST LAW THAT PROHIBITED ALL BUT MONARCHS TO
HUNT IN FORESTS
c.
AGAINST POWER OF LOCAL SHERIFF
13.
ROBIN BELONGS TO WORLD OF HEROES & VILLAINS
14.
LIKE JESSE JAMES & BILLY THE KID IN AMERICA
15.
IN TIME TALE BECAME HARMLESS & FIT FOR CHILDREN
16.
IN ITS ORIGIN IT SERVED BLOODIER PURPOSE
C.
VIOLENCE & CRIME IN ITALIAN CITIES
2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
II.
LATE MEDIEVAL VIOLENT SOCIETY TOO
EVEN MORE SO THAN MODERN AMERICA
AT NIGHT NO ONE VENTURED OUT IF COULD HELP IT
IN FLORENCE CURFEW IMPOSED AT SUNSET
a.
AFTER WHICH ONLY MUNICIPAL POLICE ALLOWED IN STREETS
b.
SPECIAL PASS NEEDED TO AVOID ARREST
c.
MANY WOMEN SLEPT W/THEIR SMALL CHILDREN IN BED W/THEM AS
OBSTACLE TO RAPISTS
POISONING BY FAMILY & FRIENDS CONSTANT CONCERN, ESPECIALLY FOR
POWERFUL
a.
GREAT TECHNICAL ADVANCES HAD BEEN MADE IN POISONS
PUNISHMENT FOR CRIMES VERY SEVERE & DESIGNED TO DETER CRIMINALS AS
WELL AS RESTORING STATE'S HONOR
VENICE HAD ESCALATING SERIES OF PUNISHMENTS FOR ROBBERY WHICH
DEPENDED ON VALUE OF STOLEN ITEMS
100 YRS WAR
A.
GENERAL REMARKS
1.
IN LATE M.A. FRANCE & ENGLAND FOUGHT EACH OTHER OFF AND ON FOR OVER
100 YRS.
a.
100 YEARS WAR
2.
BUT REALLY SERIES OF SPORADIC SKIRMISHES, UNEASY TRUCES PUNCTUATED
BY SPELLS OF INTENSE & SAVAGE COMBAT LASTING FROM 1337-1453
3.
SOME INTERESTING EYE WITNESS ACCOUNTS OF BATTLES
a.
FROISSART'S CHRONICLES
4.
WHY WOULD TWO COUNTRIES FIGHT EACH OTHER FOR SO LONG A TIME?
5.
EXPENDING MILLIONS OF POUNDS & FRANCS?
6.
KILLING & MAIMING THOUSANDS?
B.
CAUSES OF CONFLICT
1.
SEVERAL REASONS
a.
ECONOMIC, CULTURAL, POLITICAL
2.
BUT PRIMARILY FOR ECONOMIC GAINS
3.
14TH C ENGLISH KINGS STILL RULED MUCH SOUTHERN FRENCH LANDS
a.
GASCONY & AQUITAINE AREA
b.
BECAME PART OF ENGLISH MONARCH'S LAND W/ELEANOR OF AQUITAINE
MARRIAGE TO HENRY II 12TH C.
c.
AREA WHERE WINE NOT ONLY PRODUCED
d.
BUT ALL WINE GATHERED, LOADED & TAXED
e.
AS CARGOES PASSED THROUGH ENGLISH-HELD PORT OF BORDEAUX FOR
ALL OF EUROPE
4.
BUT ENGLISH KINGS HELD AREA AS VASSAL OF FRENCH CROWN
5.
ENGLISH KING THUS A FRENCH ARISTOCRAT
a.
& OBLIGED TO DEFEND INTERESTS OF HIS FRENCH OVERLORD
(1)
FOLLOWING FEUDAL LAW
6.
IN BEGINNING OF CONFLICT
7.
EDWARD III AS KING OF ENGLAND DECLARED FEUDAL CONTRACT NULL & VOID
8.
FRENCH RULERS WANTED THIS RICH AREA
9.
BUT EXPELLING ENGLISH WOULD MAKE WAR INEVITABLE
10.
ENGLAND ALSO DEPENDED FOR ITS SALT ON MARSHES OF BRITTANY & POITOU
IN FRANCE
11.
ANOTHER ECONOMIC REASON
a.
WOOLEN TRADE IN FLANDERS
12.
FLANDERS PRODUCED CLOTH PROVIDED BY ENGLISH SHEEP
13.
THESE ECONOMIC CONCERNS INSEPARABLE FROM STRATEGIC CONSIDERATIONS
14.
CRUCIAL FOR FRANCE TO CONTROL SEA TRAFFIC ALONG ITS COASTS
3
15.
C.
TO GUARD AGAINST POSSIBILITY OF FRENCH PORTS FALLING INTO ENGLISH
HANDS
16.
PHILIP OF FRANCE HAD BEGUN TO FORGE LINKS WITH ENGLAND'S HOSTILE
NEIGHBOR
a.
SCOTLAND
17.
ENGLAND & SCOTLAND HAD BEEN WARRING ALMOST CONTINUOUSLY SINCE
LATE 13 THC.
a.
WHEN EDWARD I TRIED TO SUBDUE SCOTS AS HE HAD WELSH
b.
HIS SUCCESSOR EDWARD II HAD SUFFERED HUMILIATING DEFEAT AT
BATTLE OF BANNOCKBURN
c.
SCOTS LED BY THEIR FAMOUS KING ROBERT BRUCE
18.
EDWARD III HAD IMPOSED HIS OWN PUPPET ON SCOTTISH THRONE AFTER
BRUCE'S DEATH
19.
THIS SCOTTISH-FRENCH ALLIANCE WILL CONTINUE FOR MANY CENTURIES
20.
WAR ALSO GREAT PLACE TO SEEK ONE'S FAME & FORTUNE
21.
GENERATIONS OF ENGLISHMEN WENT TO FRANCE IN LATE MIDDLE AGES
22.
WAR BOTH AVOCATION AND VOCATION FOR MANY DURING THIS TIME
a.
SOMETHING IN IT FOR EVERYONE
23.
ALSO MANY POLITICAL REASONS
24.
FLANDERS CONSIDERED VASSAL STATE OF FRENCH KINGS
25.
RESULTED IN READY-MADE OPPORTUNITY FOR FLEMISH BURGHERS TO REBEL
AGAINST FRENCH RULE
26.
POLITICAL REASONS ALSO HAD TO DO W/WHO WOULD RULE FRANCE,
a.
A FRENCH NEPHEW
b.
OR AN ENGLISH GRANDSON DESCENDED FROM A WOMAN,
27.
WHEN CAPETIAN LINE TO FRENCH THRONE DIED OUT IN 1328
28.
FRENCH BARONS CHOSE FRENCH NEPHEW BEGINNING VALOIS DYNASTY
29.
NO WOMAN WILL EVER BE FRENCH QUEEN IN HER OWN RIGHT
30.
BUT ENGLISH GRANDSON, EDWARD III, AS KING OF ENGLAND
a.
HIS MOTHER SISTER TO DEAD FRENCH KING
31.
DECIDED HE WOULD LAY CLAIM TO FRENCH CROWN
32.
HOW SERIOUS HE WAS ABOUT HIS CLAIM WE DO NOT KNOW
33.
BUT IT DID ASSURE HIM OF ONE THING
34.
IT ALLOWED HIM TO CALL ENSUING CONFLICT JUST WAR
a.
NECESSARY TO OBTAIN FEUDAL AIDS IN MEN & MONEY
b.
TAXING DEVICE FOR WAR
35.
EQUALLY NB FOR SECURING GOD ON ONE'S SIDE
36.
ALSO JUSTIFIED TAKING FRENCH PROPERTY
a.
BOOTY REWARD FOR RISK OF LIFE IN A JUST CAUSE
37.
ALSO ALLOWED FRENCH LORDS WHO SIDED WITH ENGLAND
a.
TO SHUN THEIR ALLEGIANCE TO THEIR FEUDAL LORD,
(1)
FRENCH KING
38.
ALLEGIANCE IN 14TH C STILL GIVEN TO PERSON, NOT NATION
39.
& IN SOME WAYS THIS CONFLICT COULD BE CLASSIFIED AS A FRENCH CIVIL WAR
40.
ANYTHING TO KEEP FRENCH MONARCH'S POWER FROM GROWING
41.
WHILE IT IS EVIDENT TO HISTORIANS TODAY MONETARY RETURN THAT
SPARKED CONFLICT
a.
ENGLISHMEN AT TIME OF WAR
b.
BELIEVED THEY FIGHTING BECAUSE EDWARD III DENIED HIS LEGAL RIGHT
TO FRENCH CROWN
WHO WERE THE FIGHTING MEN?
1.
FRENCH & ENGLISH KNIGHTS FORMED CAVALRY
2.
KNIGHTS NOT ONLY FROM LOWER ARISTOCRACY
3.
LOYALTY OF ENGLISH NOBLES TO ENGLISH KING,
a.
ONE OF ENGLAND'S MOST CONSPICUOUS ADVANTAGES IN CONFLICT
4
4.
5.
6.
D.
E.
F.
MANY NOBLES IN FRANCE IN IT FOR THEMSELVES
PEASANTRY SERVED AS INFANTRYMEN, PIKEMEN & ARCHERS
INDICATES LATE MA WARFARE STARTING TO RESEMBLE WARFARE OF MODERN
TIMES
METHODOLOGY OF FIGHTING
1.
FRANCE SHOULD HAVE HAD NO DIFFICULTY IN DEFEATING ENGLAND
a.
RICHEST COUNTRY IN EUROPE
b.
OUTNUMBERED ENGLAND 15 MILLION PEOPLE TO LESS THAN 4 MILLION
2.
NEVERTHELESS THRU 3/4 OF THE 100 YRS WAR ENGLISH WON MOST OF PITCHED
BATTLES
3.
WHY
a.
ENGLISH HAD LEARNED SUPERIOR MILITARY TACTICS
b.
THANKS TO FIRE-POWER OF LONG-BOW
4.
IN 3 GREATEST BATTLES OF LONG CONFLICT
a.
CRECY, POITIERS, AGINCOURT
b.
OUTNUMBERED ENGLISH RELIED ON NEW TACTICS, TIGHT DISCIPLINE &
EFFECTIVE USE OF LONGBOW
5.
CANNONS - NEW WEAPONS - FIRST USED IN 100 YEARS WAR
a.
BEGINNING W/SIEGE OF CALAIS IN 1356
6.
BUT WAR AS WHOLE WAS ONE OF ATTRITION
7.
WITH RAIDS, GUERILLA WARFARE & LOOTING MOST COMMON
8.
TROOPS PILLAGED & BURNED THEIR WAY ACROSS COUNTRYSIDE
9.
MUCH OF WAR WAGED AGAINST CIVILIANS
10.
& LONG SIEGES AGAINST WALLED TOWNS
11.
CONDUCTED FOR EXPRESS PURPOSE OF STARVING INHABITANTS INTO
SUBMISSION
12.
SUCH WAS CASE IN SIEGE OF CALAIS
13.
1 OF REASONS FOR ENGLISH SUCCESSES
a.
WAR ALWAYS FOUGHT ON FRENCH SOIL
b.
& ENGLISH ABLE TO TAKE RICH PLUNDER
14.
FRENCH OFTEN BADLY DIVIDED
15.
BOTH SIDES RESORTED TO NEGATIVE PROPAGANDA TO WIN SUPPORT & MONEY
FOR THEIR CAUSE
MAJOR BATTLES
1.
CRECY - 1346
2.
POITIERS - 1356
3.
AGINCOURT 1415
a.
HENRY V, KING OF ENGLAND GAINED LONG-LASTING FAME FOR HIS
VICTORY AT AGINCOURT
(1)
TODAY CONSIDERED EPITOME OF ENGLISH KNIGHTHOOD
TOGETHER W/BLACK PRINCE & RICHARD THE LIONHEARTED
JOAN OF ARC
1.
WHEN IT APPARENT ENGLISH WINNING
2.
HEROIC FIGURE OF JOAN OF ARC CAME FORTH TO RALLY FRENCH
3.
JOAN, AN ILLITERATE BUT EXTREMELY DEVOUT PEASANT GIRL
4.
SOUGHT OUT UNCROWNED FRENCH RULER, CHARLES VII
5.
TO ANNOUNCE SHE HAD BEEN DIVINELY COMMISSIONED TO DRIVE ENGLISH OUT
OF FRANCE
a.
SHE CLAIMED SHE HEARD GOD'S VOICE GIVING HER INSTRUCTIONS
6.
CHARLES PERSUADED TO LET HER TAKE COMMAND OF HIS TROOPS
7.
HER PIETY & SINCERITY MADE SUCH A FAVORABLE IMPRESSION ON SOLDIERS
a.
THEIR MORALE RAISED IMMENSELY
8.
IN A FEW MONTHS JOAN HAD LIBERATED MUCH OF CENTRAL FRANCE FROM
ENGLISH DOMINATION &
9.
BROUGHT CHARLES TO RHEIMS
5
G.
H.
I.
a.
WHERE HE CROWNED KING
10.
BUT IN MAY 1430 SHE CAPTURED BY BURGUNDIANS
11.
& HANDED OVER TO ENGLISH
a.
WHO ACCUSED HER OF BEING A WITCH
12.
TRIED FOR HERESY BY FRENCH INQUISITION
13.
JOAN'S WEARING OF MEN'S CLOTHES & HAIR CUT SHORT
14.
NOT ONLY SCANDALIZED PEOPLE AT TIME
15.
BUT INDICATIVE OF HER BEING IN CONTACT W/DEVIL
16.
FOUND GUILTY AFTER LONG PREDETERMINED TRIAL
17.
SHE PUBLICLY BURNED AT STAKE IN MARKET SQUARE AT ROUEN
18.
PAPACY MADE HER A SAINT IN 1920
END OF WAR
1.
FRENCH INSPIRED BY JOAN & THEIR INITIAL VICTORIES CONTINUED ON
OFFENSIVE
2.
WHEN DUKE OF BURGUNDY WITHDREW FROM ENGLISH ALLIANCE IN 1435
3.
& ENGLISH KING HENRY VI PROVED TO BE TOTALLY INCOMPETENT
a.
HAD MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS
4.
SERIES OF TRIUMPHS FOR FRENCH SIDE ENSUED
5.
1453 CAPTURE OF BORDEAUX, LAST OF ENGLISH STRONGHOLDS IN SW FRANCE
6.
FINALLY BROUGHT LONG WAR TO END
7.
ENGLISH NOW HELD NO LAND IN FRANCE
8.
EXCEPT FOR CHANNEL PORT OF CALAIS
a.
CALAIS REMAINED ENGLISH UNTIL 1558
CONSEQUENCES FOR FRANCE
1.
GREATLY STRENGTHEN POWERS OF FRENCH CROWN
2.
REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY LIKE ENGLAND'S DID NOT EVOLVE IN FRANCE
3.
MONARCHS AGAINST CENTRALIZED REPRESENTATION
4.
CROWN REIGNED SUPREME
5.
& ABLE TO CONTINUE LEVYING TAXES & MAINTAINING ARMY W/O PEOPLE'S OK
6.
FRANCE WOULD KEEP THIS POWERFUL MONARCHY UNTIL FRENCH REVOLUTION
1789
7.
BUT ECONOMICALLY FRANCE SUFFERED GREATLY
a.
TRADE, AGRICULTURE ALL ADVERSELY EFFECTED
CONSEQUENCES FOR ENGLAND
1.
FINANCIALLY PAINFUL EXPERIENCE FOR ENGLAND TOO
2.
COSTLY IN TERMS OF MONEY & MANPOWER
3.
BUT ULTIMATELY MEANT ENGLAND WOULD START PRODUCING CLOTH HERSELF
INSTEAD OF SENDING WOOL ABROAD
4.
INTERNAL INSTABILITY DURING & AFTER WAR YRS
5.
9 ENGLISH KINGS WHO RULED FROM 1307-1485,
6.
5 DIED VIOLENTLY BECAUSE OF REVOLTS OR CONSPIRACIES
7.
MOST OF THESE SLAIN KINGS HAD PROVEN THEMSELVES TO BE INCAPABLE
RULERS
8.
HOWEVER, IDEA OF A CENTRAL GOVT CONTROLLED BY A MONARCH TOO
STRONG IN ENGLAND TO SUFFER ANY LONG-TERM CONSEQUENCES
9.
HOUSE OF COMMONS IN ENGLAND BECAME VIABLE INSTITUTION
10.
RECOGNIZED AS SEPARATE FROM HOUSE OF LORDS
11.
FORCED TO MEET OFTEN TO GRANT MONARCHS OK TO LEVY TAXES FOR WAR
12.
THEY GRADUALLY REALIZED THEY HELD COUNTRY'S PURSE STRINGS
13.
EVEN WON RIGHT TO DETERMINE LEVYING OF TAXES FOR NON-WAR PURPOSES
14.
MONARCH OF ENGLAND COULD NO LONGER TAX W/O PARLIAMENT'S CONSENT
15.
PARLIAMENT ALSO OBTAINED POWERFUL CAVEAT
16.
GRIEVANCES WERE TO BE ADDRESSED FIRST
17.
THEN MONEY WOULD BE FORTHCOMING
18.
THANKS TO 100 YRS WAR & FRENCH VICTORY WE NOW SPEAK ENGLISH INSTEAD
6
OF FRENCH
III.
PEASANT REVOLTS LATE MIDDLE AGES
A.
GENERAL REMARKS
1.
PEASANTS, AS USUAL IN LATE MEDIEVAL WARFARE
2.
SUFFERED MOST FROM PILLAGING & BURNING BY WARRIORS & SOLDIERS
3.
THEY ALSO BORE HEAVIEST SHARE OF MONETARY BURDEN
4.
OTHER REASONS CAN BE OFFERED FOR WHY PEASANTS REVOLTED IN LATE
MIDDLE AGES
5.
IN STATES WITH INCREASINGLY STRONG CENTRAL GOVTS SUCH ENGLAND &
FRANCE
6.
LOCAL LORD NOT NEEDED AS PROTECTOR
7.
PEASANTS FELT HE OBTAINING TOO LARGE A 'RAKE-OFF' FOR FUNCTIONS HE
PERFORMING ON THEIR BEHALF
8.
ALSO CAUSED BY RISING EXPECTATIONS
9.
& IN THIS WAY REVOLT IN ENGLAND DIFFERENT THAN JACQUERIE REVOLT IN
FRANCE
10.
WHERE ABJECT DESPERATION FUELED THAT REVOLT
11.
PEASANTS WERE ENJOYING A RISING STANDARD OF LIVING
12.
IN ENGLAND ESPECIALLY PEASANTS NO LONGER WORKING ON LORD'S DEMESNE
LIKE IN EARLIER TIMES
13.
& THEY LIKE FREEDOM TO WORK HARD & REAP REWARDS THEMSELVES
14.
& IN REAL TERMS WAGE EARNERS ENJOYED A SUBSTANTIAL RISE
a.
OFTEN IN ORDER OF 200-250%
15.
INCREASED CONSUMPTION OF WINE & MEAT
16.
PLUS BETTER CLOTHING
a.
AS CONTINUAL ATTEMPT TO REGULATE THIS BY SUMPTUARY
LEGISLATION
17.
PEASANTS ALSO BECOMING ARTICULATE IN THEIR PROTESTS
a.
WILLING TO VOICE GRIEVANCES & DEMAND THEIR RIGHTS
18.
TWO UPRISINGS KNOWN AS
a.
PEASANTS REVOLT IN ENGLAND
b.
& JACQUERIE REVOLT IN FRANCE
19.
CAUSED BY WAR & ITS MONETARY DRAIN
B.
ENGLISH PEASANTS' REVOLT OF 1381
1.
MOST SERIOUS LOWER-CLASS REBELLION IN ENGLISH HISTORY
2.
SPARK THAT IGNITED 1381 REVOLT IN ENGLAND
3.
AT ATTEMPT TO COLLECTION NATIONAL TAX LEVIED EQUALLY ON EVERY HEAD
- POLL TAX
4.
RATHER THAN PROPORTIONAL TO ONE'S WEALTH
5.
THIS WAS UNPRECEDENTED DEVELOPMENT THAT PEASANTS FOUND UNFAIR
6.
2 EARLIER TAXES LEVIED IN 1377 AND 1379 MET WITHOUT ANY RESISTANCE
7.
BUT WHEN AGENTS TRIED TO COLLECT THIRD IN 1381 PEASANTRY ROSE UP TO
RESIST
8.
& SOUGHT REDRESS OF ALL THEIR GRIEVANCES
9.
PART OF THEIR GRIEVANCES
a.
ATTEMPT BY THEIR LANDLORDS TO RETURN TO WAGES
b.
OF PRE-PLAGUE LEVELS
10.
PEASANTS EXPECTATIONS HAD GONE UP & THEY DID NOT WANT TO RETURN TO
LOWER WAGES
11.
PEASANTS BURNED RECORDS, SACKED RESIDENTS OF EXPLOITERS & MURDERED
HIGH OFFICIALS
12.
RICHARD II, YOUNG 15 BOY KING PROMISED REDRESS OF THEIR GRIEVANCES
13.
BUT RENEGED ON HIS PROMISES
14.
& TROUBLE-MAKERS EXECUTED
7
15.
16.
17.
WHILE INITIALLY REVOLT ACCOMPLISHED NOTHING
OVER NEXT SEVERAL DECADES SERFDOM DISAPPEARED FROM ENGLAND
& TIMES GOT BETTER FOR THEM