CHAPTER 8
Cognition and Language
OUTLINE
I.
BASIC FUNCTIONS OF THOUGHT
Cognitive psychology is the study of mental processes by which the information humans receive
from their environment is modified, made meaningful, stored, retrieved, used, and communicated
to others.
A.
The Circle of Thought
The five core functions of human thinking—describe, elaborate, decide, plan, and guide
action—form a circle of thought. An information-processing system receives information,
represents the information with symbols, and then manipulates those representations.
Thinking is the manipulation of mental representations in order to form new representations.
B.
II.
Measuring Information Processing
1. Mental Chronometry. Researchers study the time it takes to go through the stages of
information processing, or mental chronometry. Reaction time is the time elapsed
between the presentation of a stimulus or information and a response. Several factors
influence reaction time in quick decisions: complexity, stimulus-response
compatibility, expectancy, and speed-accuracy tradeoff.
2. Evoked Brain Potentials. Evoked brain potentials are used to analyze mental events
and their timing. Evoked potentials are changes in voltage on an electroencephalogram
(EEG) that are reactions to stimuli.
3. Neuroimaging. PET scans and fMRI technologies help scientists image the brain, and
cognitive neuroscientists can watch what happens during information processing.
When a task is new and difficult, frontal lobe activity is higher than when the task is
well learned.
MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS: THE INGREDIENTS OF THOUGHT
A. Concepts
Concepts are categories of objects, events, or ideas with common properties, such as the way
they look or the subjects they contain.
1.
B.
C.
Types of Concepts. Formal concepts can be defined by a set of characteristics that all
members have and no nonmembers have. Natural concepts are concepts whose
members must have at least some of the characteristics that define the concept.
Prototypes are objects or events that best represent a natural concept.
Propositions
The smallest units of knowledge that can stand as separate assertions are called propositions.
Propositions can be either true or false.
Schemas, Scripts, and Mental Models
Schemas are our general knowledge about categories of objects, events, and people.
1.
2.
D.
Scripts. Scripts are mental representations of sequences of activity.
Mental Models. Representations of particular situations or arrangements of objects that
guide our thinking about them are called mental models.
Images and Cognitive Maps
Thinking is sometimes based on visual image manipulation, such as rotation of a mental
image of an object. Cognitive maps are mental models of the spatial arrangements in
familiar parts of the world.
III. THINKING STRATEGIES
Reasoning is the process by which we generate arguments, evaluate them, and reach conclusions.
A.
Formal Reasoning
The mental procedures that yield a valid conclusion are known as formal reasoning.
Algorithms are systematic methods that always reach a correct result. At the core of the
study of logic is using the rules of logic in the evaluation of syllogisms. Logic errors include
bias about conclusions and limits on working memory.
B.
Informal Reasoning
Informal reasoning involves inducing a conclusion on the basis of specific facts or examples.
For example, people tend to use heuristics, or mental shortcuts, rather than algorithms,
which always yield a correct solution.
1.
The Anchoring Heuristic. The anchoring heuristic occurs when one estimates the
probability of an event not by starting from scratch, but by adjusting an earlier
estimate.
2. The Representativeness Heuristic. The representativeness heuristic occurs when people
decide whether an example belongs in a certain class on the basis of how similar it is to
other items in that class, while ignoring base rates.
3. The Availability Heuristic. The availability heuristic involves judging the likelihood of
an event or the correctness of a hypothesis based on how easily the hypothesis or
examples of that event come to mind.
IV. PROBLEM SOLVING
A. Strategies for Problem Solving
1. Incubation. Incubation involves setting a problem aside for a while and thinking about
other things. This allows you to forget incorrect ideas that may have been blocking you
from a solution.
2. Means-end analysis. Means-end analysis involves continuously asking where you are
in relation to your final goal, and then deciding on the means by which you can get one
step closer to it.
3. Working Backward. Working backward is a problem-solving strategy that involves
starting with the solution and working backward from it to determine what you need to
generate or obtain that solution.
4. Using Analogies. Using analogies involves trying to find similarities between the
present problem you are trying to solve and other problems you have encountered
before.
B. Focus on Research Methods: Locating Analogical Thinking
To study the relationship between brain activity and analogical mapping, researchers used
PET scans and asked participants to perform two tasks in succession. The tasks made similar
demands on the brain with the exception that one of the tasks required analogical thinking,
whereas the other did not. Psychologists then “subtracted” the brain activity recorded for the
task without analogical demands from the activity recorded for the task requiring
participants to make analogies. Areas that remained “active” after the subtraction—mainly
the left frontal and parietal lobes—were taken as evidence of the source of analogical
thinking. Future research is necessary to determine whether these areas are activated in all
analogical thinking or only in certain types of analogical thinking.
C.
Obstacles to Problem Solving
1.
D.
E.
Multiple Hypotheses. Testing the incorrect hypothesis first when more than one
hypothesis exists can delay problem solving.
2. Mental Sets. A mental set is the tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist,
even when better strategies might be available. Functional fixedness, the inability to
use objects in new ways, can also impede problem solving.
3. Ignoring Negative Evidence. We do not use the lack of evidence as often as we should
when testing a hypothesis.
4. The Confirmation Bias. Once we choose a hypothesis, we tend to interpret available
information as confirming it.
Building Problem-Solving Skills
Experts efficiently use old information to organize new material into smaller, more
meaningful units and use their experience as a guide. However, experts need to beware of
mental sets, functional fixedness, and confirmation biases.
Problem Solving by Computer
Artificial-intelligence (AI) scientists develop computer systems that imitate the products of
human perception and thought.
1.
V.
Symbolic Reasoning and Computer Logic. Expert systems are computer programs that
solve very specific problems. These systems require an extensive knowledge base and
an inference engine. Unfortunately, the computer’s expertise in one area cannot be
easily transferred to a different domain or area.
2. Neural Network Models. Many AI specialists have begun to use a connectionist or
neural network approach because much of intelligent diagnostics and problem solving
depends on recognition and classification of conditions and patterns.
3. Computer-Assisted Problem Solving. Computer-human combinations are increasingly
being used to solve problems more efficiently than either could do alone.
DECISION MAKING
Risky decisions are decisions made when the result is uncertain.
A.
Evaluating Options
Multiattribute decision making involves choosing between options that have both positive
and negative features, or attributes.
1.
B.
Comparing Attributes. Multiattribute decisions can be difficult because comparisons of
many attributes must be made despite the limited storage capacity of working memory.
Utility is the subjective, personal value of each attribute. The positive and negative
utilities of each attribute must be weighed in a decision.
2. Estimating Probabilities. Good decisions maximize expected value. People must take
into account the probabilities of certain outcomes and the outcome value in decision
making.
Biases and Flaws in Decision Making
People do not always maximize expected values for several reasons.
1.
Gains, Losses, and Probabilities. Positive utilities are not mirror images of negative
utilities; people feel worse about losing a certain amount than they feel good about
gaining the same amount. Most people see large losses as disproportionately more
serious than small losses. People assess the probability of a decision incorrectly
because they tend to estimate incorrectly the probability of rare or frequent events, are
operating from gambler’s fallacy, or have too much confidence in their own
predictions.
2.
C.
How Biased Are We? Psychologists are not sure how to answer this question. Do
people make too many decision-making mistakes because they are attempting to satisfy
criteria other than expected value?
Linkages: Group Processes in Problem Solving and Decision Making
Group interaction shapes decision-making processes. Group discussions follow a consistent
pattern. Various options are proposed and debated until a minimally acceptable solution is
agreed on. This option is staunchly defended against all newer options and is likely to
become the group’s decision. The outcomes of group decisions may be more extreme than
individual decisions—a phenomenon called group polarization.
When a correct solution can be easily demonstrated to all members, groups usually
outperform individuals. On less clear-cut problems, though, the best group member may
outperform the group. The critical element in successful group problem solving is the
sharing of individual members’ unique information and expertise.
VI. LANGUAGE
A. The Elements of Language
A language has two basic elements: symbols and grammar.
1.
B.
C.
D.
From Sounds to Sentences. Phonemes are the smallest unit of sound with meaning.
Morphemes are the smallest unit of language with meaning. Words are made of
morphemes, which in turn consist of phonemes. Rules of syntax determine the ways in
which words are combined to form sentences. Semantics are rules that govern the
meanings of words and sentences.
2. Surface Structure and Deep Structure. The surface structure of a sentence (the string of
words) may have more than one meaning, or deep structure.
Understanding Speech
1. Perceiving Words and Sentences. The gaps we hear between spoken words are not real
but are perceived because of top-down processing. Syntax, memories, and knowledge
of the world help us comprehend and remember verbal and written communication.
The Development of Language
1. The First Year. At about four months of age, babies begin repeating simple syllables,
called babblings. At about nine months, babies stop uttering sounds that are not part of
the language to which they are exposed. At twelve to eighteen months, babies utter
their first real words, which usually are proper names and object words. In the oneword stage, children tend to use one word at a time and overextend its use to mean
more than one object. This is known as the one-word stage of speech.
2. The Second Year. These appear at about eighteen to twenty-four months of age as twoword pairs. These first sentences are telegraphic: brief and to the point. Next are threeword sentences that use subject-verb-object sequences. Word endings begin to appear,
but at first are used incorrectly. Finally, adjectives and auxiliary verbs are added. By
age five, children have acquired most of the syntax of their native language.
3. The Third Year and Beyond. At about age three, children begin to use auxiliary verbs,
question words, and clauses.
How Is Language Acquired?
1. Conditioning, Imitation, and Rules. Conditioning, imitation, and rules do not fully
explain the development of language in children. However, when adults provide
correct revisions of a child’s conversation, the learning process is enhanced.
2. Biological Bases for Language Acquisition. Noam Chomsky suggests that children
possess an innate universal grammar that helps them learn the complexities of
language. Some children display Specific Language Impairment. There appears to be a
critical period for language development.
3.
E.
Bilingualism. Children in a bilingual environment prior to the end of the critical period
show enhanced language performance. Those children with similar mastery of two
languages, or balanced bilinguals, may have more cognitive flexibility and creativity.
Thinking Critically: Can Nonhumans Use Language?
What am I being asked to believe or accept?
Some researchers believe that nonhumans can use language.
What evidence is available to support the assertion?
Research with chimpanzees suggests that animals can learn to use words and adopt a crude
grammar.
Are there alternative ways of interpreting the evidence?
Other researchers argue that chimps’ very short sentence structure and lack of spontaneous
and creative use of language mean that they are incapable of language. In addition,
experimenter bias may explain some of the “language-learning” results seen in chimpanzees.
What additional evidence would help to evaluate the alternatives?
Studies in the area are few in number. More studies using more subjects need to be done. In
addition, researchers need to examine the limiting capacity of nonhuman working memory
and its effects on animals’ use of language.
What conclusions are most reasonable?
Psychologists are still not in full agreement on this issue. The communication displayed by
animals is much more limited than human children’s language. And the level of language
produced by chimps so far falls short of matching their very high levels of intelligence. But
the evidence does suggest that under the right conditions, animals can learn language-like
skills.
F.
Culture, Language, and Thought
Research across cultures and within North American culture suggests that language does not
determine what we can think about, but it does influence how we think, solve problems, and
make decisions. Whorf called this linguistic determinism. Rosch’s research failed to support
this notion in total, leading to a weaker version of Whorf’s hypothesis being more widely
accepted.