Pre-Columbian Latin America
The Maya, Aztec and Inca build extraordinary civilizations in the Americas
Civilization
Location
Maya
S. Mexico,
N. Central America
Aztec
Mexico
Inca
W. South America
(Andes Mountains)
Accomplishments
Written Language (codexes)
Math (concept of zero)
Accurate calendars Astronomy
Large cities / pyramids
Planned Cities
Built massive structures on
floating city - Canals, streets,
aqueducts, causeways, floating
farmland
Military empire – forced tribute
Extensive road network
Highly organized gov’t
Elaborate engineering / building
System of measurement / record
keeping (quipu – colored string)
Medical knowledge - surgery
Conquered by
Suddenly vanished
– cause unknown
Hernando Cortes
(Spain)
Francisco Pizzaro
(Spain)
European Exploration and Conquest of Latin America
After Columbus discovers the riches of the New World, Spain sends
conquistadors (conquerors) to explore and subdue the new lands. Their motives
are “gold, God and glory”. The Spanish claim land and start colonies. They
quickly dominate most of Latin America.
 The absolute monarchy of Spain extended to the colony
o Viceroys acted as representatives of the king or queen
 Mercantilism was the economic policy
o Colony provides raw materials and markets for mother country
 Encomienda System was used on cash-crop plantations
o Land grant from Spanish gov’t to certain settlers
o Also gave control of the labor of native Indians
o Import of African slaves begins
 Catholic Church sought to convert natives to Christianity
o Also wanted to stop spread of Protestantism (Counter-Reformation)
Rigid Class Structure
Peninsulares - Spaniards born in Spain
Creoles - Full -blooded Spaniards but born in the colonies
Mestizos / Mulattoes - Mixed Spanish and Native
American /African descent
Slaves and Native Indians
Columbian Exchange
o Transfer of food, plants, animals to non-native areas
 Tomatoes, squash, tobacco, cacao beans to Europe
o Europeans brought animals and plants to Americas
 Horses, pigs, cattle, bananas, yams
o Europeans also brought disease
 Smallpox, measles – led to death of millions of natives
Latin American Independence Movements
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Why?
Unjust conditions under colonial rule
Enlightenment ideas spread to Latin America through creoles
Inspired by success of American and French Revolution
Napoleonic wars in Europe divert attention from Latin America
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Who and Where?
Toussiant L’Ouverture in Haiti
Simon Bolivar in Venezuela
Jose de San Martin in Argentina
Miguel Hidalgo and Jose Morelos in Mexico
Brazil wins independence through a bloodless revolution
Latin America After Independence
Bolivar had dreamed of a unified Latin America. However, this proved
impossible due to several factors.
 Regional Differences – Geographic barriers (mountains, rivers, rainforest)
 Tradition of Absolute Rule – most people had no experience with
democracy and could not make gov’t work
 Caudillos – military dictators who used repressive tactics, favored top class
 Economic and Social Inequity – Most land was owned by a few wealthy
people. Large gap between rich and poor
Economic Imperialism in Latin America
Newly independent Latin American nations fell subject to economic imperialism.
 Foreign Investment – Americans, Europeans invested billions, many loans
 Foreign Intervention – Warships were sent to collect debts. Businesses
viewed unstable gov’ts as threats. Supported
caudillos who kept order.
 Spanish American War – US supports Cuba in independence. Wins
territory from Spain. US can intervene in Cuba to
protect US business interests. Sets up naval bases.
 Panama Canal – US encourages Panama to revolt against Colombia. We
build and keep the right to the canal until 2000.
Efforts at Cooperation
 Organization of American States - OAS (1948)
Promotes regional cooperation and peaceful settlement of disputes
 Alliance for Progress (1961)
o Kennedy program to loan /invest billions in Latin America
o Nations were to enact genuine reform in exchange
o Produced little progress –business elite and landowners opposed
change. Aid $$ was scaled down from what Kennedy proposed
Cuba
Fulgencio Batista seizes power in 1952
 Did little to improve poor conditions
 Was friendly to US business interests
Fidel Castro organizes a guerilla army against Batista. He takes control of gov’t
in 1959. After failed attempts at a relationship with the US, Castro looks to the
Soviet Union for aid and support.
Cuban Revolution
Political Causes
Dictatorship backed by
military and secret police
Economic Causes
Control of plantations by
elite upper class
Corruption in gov’t
Unequal distribution of
wealth
Special favors given to
foreign investors
Political Results
Castro installs a
totalitarian regime
Economic Results
Reorganized private
estates into collective
farms
Nationalization (gov’t
control) over business
and industry
Seized foreign property
Denial of basic political
rights
No political opposition
Social Causes
Lack of adequate
housing, education,
medical care
Discrimination against
blacks and the poor
Social Results
Prohibited discrimination
Expanded public
education and ended
widespread illiteracy
Improved housing and
medical care
Castro’s changes made many flee Cuba for the US. The US still enforces a trade
embargo against Cuba. Castro resigned in 2008 and was replaced by his brother
Raul. Cuba continues a hard-line Communist stance.
Argentina
In the early 1900s, Argentina was the largest Spanish-speaking nation in the
world and the richest country in Latin America
Characteristics:
o Stable gov’t dominated by a wealthy elite
o Good economy based on beef and wheat exported to England
o Millions of immigrants in Buenos Aires to work in factories
After the Depression struck, Argentina was plagued by economic crises, social
unrest and military rule.
Juan and Eva Peron (1946-1955)
Peron was a military leader elected president – wife was an actress
Peron was a “populist caudillo” - He favored reforms for the people, such as:
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Limited foreign-owned businesses
Supported import substitution
Boosted wages
Strengthened labor unions
Gave women the right to vote
But he was still an authoritarian ruler – he stifled and eliminated opposition. His
reforms were expensive, and created a huge debt and high inflation.
Peron was forced into exile in 1955 by a military coup. The military ruled on and
off until 1973, when Peron returned and was elected president again. His new
wife Isabel was elected as vice president.
Peron died in 1974, and Isabel takes over. She faced economic and political
crises, and is forced out by a military coup in 1976.
“The Dirty War”
Under the new military gov’t, the army waged “The Dirty War”
 Alleged “enemies of the state” were terrorized, tortured and murdered
 Up to 20,000 people were taken from their homes and were never seen again
o They are called “los desaparecidos” (the disappeared)
o The mothers and sisters of the disappeared march silently every
Thursday holding pictures of the lost children.
o The “Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo” gained worldwide attention to
the plight of the victims of Argentina’s “Dirty War”
War in Latin America
Nicaragua
Nicaragua had a genuine revolution in the 20th Century
The Samoza family enjoyed US support because they were anti-communist
 They were corrupt – looted the country
 Ruled from 1936-1979
The Sandinistas - various groups opposed to the Samozas that joined together.
 They ousted Samoza - Daniel Ortega becomes president
 They introduced land reform and other socialist policies
President Reagan feared this would be another Cuba, and secretly backed a group
called the contras – guerillas who fought against the Sandinistas.
A long civil war ensued but the Sandinistas kept power. Eventually a
compromise was reached to stop fighting.
 Elections were held – Violeta Chamorro elected president
 Sandinistas give up power peacefully – retain control of military
Guatemala
Fearing growing communist influence and threats to American interests, the U.S.
government helped to oust the reformist gov’t in 1954.
The military and landowners regained power, but civil war ensued.
 During decades of civil war, the gov’t routinely tortured and
murdered critics
 The chief victims were native Americans
o Some died for the land they farmed but did not own
o Some were killed as the army exterminated entire villages
o Up to 30,000 were killed in the 1980’s alone
The civil war ended in 1996, when a peace agreement was signed. It recognized
the rights of the Guatemalan people.
The Changing Role of the Catholic Church
Up until the 1970s, the Catholic Church in Latin America supported the ruling
class, the military, and the elite.
This was a remnant from the colonial days and from Europe, where the clergy
were considered wealthy and part of the upper class of society. This tradition of
siding with the ruling class carried over into the modern day.
In the 1970s, some church leaders abandoned these ties to the elite.
They pressed for reform, siding with poor rather than the elite.
Liberation theology - the belief that God was a “a God of justice and love who
acts on the side of the poor and oppressed.”
Archbishop Oscar Romero was one religious leader in El Salvador who tried to
create reform, social justice and opportunity for the people who were poor and
oppressed by gov’t of the military and landowning elite. He, along with other
church workers and student and labor leaders, was killed by death squads.
Immigration / Migration
Latin American immigration to the U.S. increased rapidly after the 1970s.
Why?
Poverty and Population
o The lack of opportunities in their own countries encourage people to
seek a better life elsewhere. The economies of developing nations can
not keep up with population growth.
o The majority of people own no land. Small farmers work for wealthy
landowners for low wages. They borrow money to get by, and end up
owing. This is called debt slavery, as they are tied to the land until the
debts can be paid, which is unlikely.
o Educational opportunities are limited in rural areas as children must
help to support families
o Even in the cities jobs are not plentiful, and living conditions are as
bad or worse than in the countryside. However, education and health
care opportunities are a bit better in the city.
Civil War
o Countries experiencing civil wars see a high rate of immigration as
people move to avoid the violence and conflict.
o Some populations were targets, such as the Native Americans in
Guatemala
Repressive Governments
o Some military governments seek to keep control by eliminating
opposition
 People move to escape political persecution
 Middle class in Castro’s Cuba to escape nationalizing
 Labor leaders in El Salvador to escape death squads