1.1 Introduction
A clerk is a white-collar worker who conducts general office tasks, or a worker who performs similar sales-related tasks in a retail environment (a retail clerk). The responsibilities of clerical workers commonly include record keeping, filing, staffing service counters and other administrative tasks.
History and etymology
The word clerk is derived from the Latin clericus meaning "cleric" or "clergyman", which is the latinisation of the Greek
κληρικός
( klērikos
), "of the clergy". The word entered
English from Scots Gaelic clèireach
, which was also derived from the Latin clericus .
The association derived from early medieval courts, where writing was mainly entrusted to clergy because most laymen couldn't read. In a medieval context, the word clerk meant
"scholar". Even today, the term Clerk regular designates a type of regular cleric. The cognate terms in some languages, e.g., Klerk in Dutch, became restricted to a specific, fairly low rank in the administrative hierarchy.
United States
Clerical workers are perhaps the largest occupational group in the United States. In 2004, there were 3.1 million general office clerks, 1.5 million office administrative supervisors and 4.1 million secretaries. Clerical occupations often do not require a college degree, though some college education or 1 to 2 years in vocational programs are common qualifications. Familiarity with office equipment and certain software programs is also often required. Employers may provide clerical training. The median salary for clerks is $23,000, while the national median income for workers age 25 or older is $33,000. Median salaries ranged from $22,770 for general office clerks to $34,970 for secretaries and $41,030 for administrative supervisors. Clerical workers are considered working class by American sociologists such as William Thompson,
Joseph Hickey or James Henslin as they perform highly routinized tasks with relatively little autonomy. Sociologist Dennis Gilbert, argues that the white and blue collar divide has shifted to
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a divide between professionals, including some semi-professionals, and routinized white collar workers. White collar office supervisors may be considered lower middle class with some secretaries being located in that part of the socio-economic strata where the working and middle classes overlap.
Traditionally clerical positions have been held almost exclusively by women. Even today, the vast majority of clerical workers in the US continue to be female. As with other predominantly female positions, clerical occupations were, and to some extent continue to be, assigned relatively low prestige on a sexist basis. The term pink collar worker is often used to describe predominantly female white collar positions.
Clerical workers and unions
Due to the majority of clerical positions being held by women, the sector is largely ununionized. With the decline of the industrial sector and the rise of white-collar jobs, the labor movement needed to tap into this large pool of potential members in order to sustain the movement. Much debate exists as to what strategies to adopt when organizing female clerical workers. Part of the issue is that many female clerks do not wish to pay their dues. Some claim that focusing on gender sensitive issues would be the most effective route, since women tend to shy away from the male-dominated unions. Others argue that women are just as militant as men when it comes to getting grievances heard, such as the willingness of female employees of a
Wisconsin insurance company to fight against management’s discriminatory practices. Still others contend that the problem does not lie with the tactics used to “sell” the union to the workers, but in developing “leadership from among the workers and train[ing] them to organize their fellow workers.”
1.2 THE REGISTRY: Some basic considerations
What is a registry?

Simply put, a registry is a list, and

The list is maintained by a registrar separately from a standard.
Why?

Standards can contain lists, so why provide a separate mechanism?

Registries are easier to maintain than standards, and

Registries can be made openly available
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Definition

The ISO directives define a registration authority but not actually the term register, but the JTC1 directives do have the definition.

Register: A set of files (paper, electronic, or a combination) containing the assigned data elements and the associated information. [ISO/IEC JTC1 Directives - Annex E]”, also
[ISO 11179-6]
What does “registration” mean?

The assignment of an unambiguous identifier to a data element in a way that makes the assignment available to interested parties. [ISO/IEC JTC1 Directives - Annex E]”, also
[ISO 11179-6]
What is a “registration authority”?
 “
An organization approved by ISO/IEC for performing international registration according to the rules for operation in 2.7.2 (JTC1 directives) and the procedure guidelines in E2 (JTC1 directives)
”. [ref. JTC1 Directives]
 “Any organization authorized to register data elements ”. [ref. ISO 11179-6]

No definition in ISO Directives, but still the section on Registration Authorities [ref.
ISO/IEC Directives Part 1 Annex N]
Registration procedures per the ISO directives

General rules about Registration Authorities are in ISO/IEC Directives Part 1, Annex N

Registration Authorities MUST be approved by the ISO and IEC Councils, so they cannot be created trivially.

JTC1 includes more rigorous rules that may be brought into TC211 by including them in a procedure standard.
Purposes of a registry?

Document initial content

Assist implementation

Control Maintenance

Document extensions (International, National and organizational)

Standardize elements themselves for use in other applications
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
Handling maintenance of versions (temporal)

For specific aspects, provide a more flexible mechanism for the evolution of a standard
(for example: a new permissible value in a code-list, 3-5 year standard process vs 3-6 months in a registry process)
What a registry isn’t?

A way to circumvent the ISO standard process

Rules MUST be in place to prevent this.

A mixed bag of anything from any source

Rules MUST be in place to prevent this.

Sources MUST be clearly identified.

Standards MUST indicate precisely what is allowed to be registered.
Relationship of standards and registries?

Standards always have precedence over registries.

A standard must state clear procedures and rules.

A Registration Authority must follow these procedures and rules for a registry

For example: ISO 19115 Metadata (Annex F) clearly specifies how to create user-defined metadata element. User-defined metadata elements could be registered.
Maintenance of standards through registries?

Specific types of maintenance of standards can be initiated with registries within strict
ISO standard process.

A standard may include a code list of five permissible values. A sixth one may be added through the registry mechanism. This sixth one can be added to the standard later in a future amendment.
Registries are widely used in ISO

There are currently 48 Registration Authorities for ISO/IEC and ISO/IEC JTC1.

These are distributed over 10 countries.

Registration works.
TC211 possibilities
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
Registries could be used in TC211 for:
 metadata elements
 code-lists
 model components as objects, attributes, relationships (including support for encoding directive)
 conforming implementations (profiles and instantiations)

The appropriate use of registries will eliminate the need for equivalence tables in the support of CLA.
1.3 JOB DESCRIPTION OF ADMINISTRATIVE CLERK II: An Example
Information
Job Class: Administrative Clerk PD Number:
Department: CCTHITA Type of Position: Non-Exempt
Location of Work: All areas Covered Position: No
Salary Grade(s): 5 Prepared by: Roberta Johnson
Hours of Work: Approved by:
Employment Category: Regular Full-Time Effective Date:
Purpose
Under general supervision, Administrative clerks II work independently to provide a full range of clerical assignments of average difficulty as assigned or defined by established procedures.
Reporting Relationships
Reports To: Varies by Department
Supervises: May supervise a clerk I, or volunteer.
Liaison To: N/A
Essential Functions
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
Provide a full range of reception services. Respond to requests for information from the public or employees by answering the phone, greeting the public, mailing program information, and making referrals.

Pick up, receive, open, date stamp, and deliver mail and/or other materials.

Update files, and maintain a variety of records such as addresses, telephone numbers, vacation schedules, attendance and timesheets, numerical logs, ledgers, and client files.

Photocopy documents, collate, assemble, and distribute materials.

Type or produce reports or correspondence utilizing word processing, spreadsheet, and other business software.

Receive, review, and compare documents, forms, or applications for completeness and accuracy.

Responsible for follow-up work to ensure all applications are complete with all necessary data and supporting documents.

Perform complex data entry tasks for which there is a moderate variation of formats and procedures and with general instructions for coding and entering data; check and correct entry for input errors.

Gathers and records statistical information for reporting purposes.

Assist with travel arrangements as necessary.

Prepares and assembles large mail-outs of program materials.

Assists prospective clients and co-workers by explaining steps, appropriate forms, procedures, and program requirements for transactions, services, and other program activities.

Monitor and maintain office supplies and materials.

Assist with maintaining data base for program.

Assists in scheduling and general set up tasks for meetings in local communities as requested.

Assist with special projects as assigned.

Other related duties as assigned.
Decision Making Authority
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Spending Authocccrity: N/A
Other Authority: N/A
Necessary Skills and Knowledge

Ability to work independently and perform clerical assignments with moderate direction.

Ability to read, comprehend, explain, and apply written procedures.

Working knowledge of business practices, correspondence and typing formats, including correct English grammar, spelling, and punctuation.

Working knowledge of filing and record keeping systems.

Ability to recognize differences among data, facts, objects, or material.

Ability to compare data from two or more sources for accuracy and completeness.

Ability to operate office equipment

Ability to greet visitors, answer the phone and answer or refer incoming inquiries from the public.

Ability to perform complex data entry tasks.

Working knowledge of MS Office Suite software and the use of computer systems.

Ability to follow oral and written instructions.

Familiarity with Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian cultures.
Minimum Qualifications (education, experience, skills)

High School Diploma or GED,

Certified Computer Training in MS Word, MS Excel, and MS Outlook.

1 year of experience (paid or volunteer) performing duties related to office or clerical support.

Minimum typing speed of 40 words per minute.

Valid Drivers License (may be a requirement for some appointments.)
Preferred Qualifications (education, experience, skills)

Certified completion of computer training for entire MS Office Suite programs.
Unusual Physical Requirements or Restrictions
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The majority of work is performed in a professional office setting and is generally sedentary, requiring routine walking, standing, bending, and carrying of items weighing less than
40 lbs. Travel on small aircraft or ferry may be required.
Conditions of Hire :
 All employment at CCTHITA is “at will”. This means that the employee or CCTHITA may terminate employment at any time and for any reason. Unless specified in writing, no term of employment is expressed or implied for this position

CCTHITA is a no tolerance workplace. All regular employees must pass an initial and random drug and alcohol screening to be eligible for and maintain employment.

CCTHITA requires a criminal background check for the safety of our clients. All employment offers are conditional until CCTHITA has received a Federal criminal background check verifying eligibility to work in these programs.
This Job Description describes the essential functions and qualifications of the job described. It is not an exhaustive statement of all the duties, responsibilities, or qualifications of the job. This document is not intended to exclude modifications consistent with providing reasonable accommodation for a disability. This is not a contract. Your signature indicates that you have read this Job Description and understand the essential functions of and qualifications for the job.
___________________________________
Employee Printed Name
___________________________________
Employee Signature
___________________
Date
1.4 RECORD KEEPING as an Administrative/Clerical Function
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Records management is the scientific creation, use, maintenance, and disposal of records to achieve efficient, transparent, and accountable governance. The combination of best practices and records management helps organizations manage and benefit from data on a proactive and progressive basis.
1. Consistent Record Classification System
The foundation of any good record management program is developing a consistent records classification system across the organization. While there are many record classification systems, one recommended best practice is a three-tier classification based on business function, record class, and record type.
The first step toward developing such a records classification system is taking an inventory or a comprehensive and accurate listing of locations and contents of all records within the organization.
The second step is grouping the records in the inventory according to business functions, record class, and record type:
 Common business functions include operations, finance, legal, marketing, human resources, and others.
 The top-level business functions are broken down into record classes. For instance, two
 record classes of record-function accounting are accounts payable and accounts receivable.
Record types are a further subdivision of record classes. For instance, the accounts payable record class can be further broken down into accounts payable aging reports, accounts payable distribution reports, cash disbursement reports, and other categories.
No matter which classification system is adopted, the selected system should address all records regardless of the media type.
2. Indexing and Access Policy
The success of a records management program depends on the ease and efficiency of retrieval of the required data. The inability to retrieve the required data on a timely basis causes costly hold ups, decreases organizational efficiency, degrades organizational quality, and even leads to litigations and fines.
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The best practice in this regard is indexing all records, regardless of the media, in a systematic matter with multiple indexing heads. Possible indexing heads include subject matter based on content, subject matter based on context, record creator, intended recipient, date of creation, and others.
The indexing policy needs reinforcement through an access control policy and safeguards. The access policy should define:

Extent of access to records for each employee.

An authorization process that includes checks against the laid-down access policy before retrieval of records

A means to record and track retrieval of records
A well laid-out authorization and access policy helps maintain confidentiality and prevents unauthorized disclosure or data theft.
3. Retention Policy
A records retention schedule ensures retention of records only while legally and operationally required and ensures disposal of obsolete records in a systematic and controlled manner.
Organizations would do well to create the records retention schedule at the record class level rather than at the departmental or functional level.
Factors that determine the retention time for each record class include:
 Federal, state, local, or international laws and regulations. Agencies that usually mandate

 retention of records for a specified period include agencies such as the Securities
Exchange Commission (SEC), Federal Trade Commission (FTC), Federal
Communications Commission (FCC), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), National
Labor Relations Board (NLRB), Internal Revenue Service (IRS), Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission (EEOC), Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA), and others.
Statutes of limitation and limitation of actions that dictate the time period to file a lawsuit or levy a fine
Operational requirements such as process life cycles, time taken to sell a product, inventory shelf life, after sales guarantee, and similar considerations.
Some tips for combining best practices and record management in a records retention program include:
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 Categorizing records into “official” records and “convenience copy” records, and destroying “convenience copy” records that have no business value or legal validity after the intended use, usually after 30 days.
 Establishing a system that requires employees to classify and retain e-mails that are official records. An automated warning on pressing the delete key to force employees to
 review and make a decision about the nature of the e-mail helps in this direction.
Identifying vital or “mission critical” records essential to protect the financial, legal, and operational interests of the organization and the stakeholders, and preserving such

 documents of permanently in media-appropriate archival conditions
Defining a triggering event for each record class to become inactive. Conducting corporate-wide annual reviews of onsite records to pack inactive records to less expensive off-site storage or purge them altogether as the policy demands.
Establishing a system of “hold” or not destroying records even when allowed to do so by the records retention schedule to cater to eventualities such as prolonged litigation, audit, or governmental investigation.
 Re-examining the records retention schedule for possible updates and revisions at least once every two years
 Taking periodic backups for disaster recovery
4. Disposal
Systematic, consistent, and controlled regulations to destroy records that have outlived their utility not only save valuable space and efforts to maintain such records, but also reduce risk and serve as evidence of an organization’s good faith in attempting to conform to the law. Haphazard patterns of records disposal may cause accidental destruction of vital records, leakage of confidential information, and cause doubts of intentional destruction of embarrassing records.
Best practices in record disposal include:
 Establishing standard disposal policies at the corporate level and periodic review of such
 standards by legal and compliance professionals.
Instituting a system of final check by the relevant personnel to determine whether the
 record is required for legal or business purpose after the record retention policy clears the document for disposal.
Instituting annual organized purges of off-site records to destroy obsolete records.
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 Determining an appropriate method of disposal by records class or media type. For instance, non-confidential documents are best recycled whereas confidential records require secure shredding to prevent slippage of confidential information or personal data.
5. Compliance
The implementation of a records management system remains incomplete without establishing mechanisms to ensure compliance with the policy. The responsibility of implementation of the records management system usually rests with a steering committee composed of a designated records manager to administer the program, working with representatives from legal, IT, finance, tax, human resources, and risk management teams.
Best practices to ensure compliance of record management policies include:
 Instituting a records management training programs and acknowledgement program
 requiring employees to acknowledge receipt of training and understanding of records management policies and procedures.
Periodic communication of records management information to employees via company newsletters and the intranet including implications of non-compliance with the policy, unauthorized access, or premature destruction of records.
 Including records management in the company’s internal audit process.
 Enforcing accountability by including compliance of the records management program in performance appraisals.
1.5 The Importance of Record Classification & Tips for Improving Filing Accuracy
Records Classification
Discussions surrounding records classification do not seem to cease, as this continues to be the centre of records management issues experienced by many. In my view as a records manager, the importance of classification often tends to be misunderstood or dismissed by endusers and even IT professionals. On the other hand, I realize that records managers should put more effort into developing strategies that address the concerns expressed by others.
For those new to the concept, classification is the “systematic identification and arrangement of business activities and/or records into categories according to logically structured conventions, methods, and procedural rules represented in a classification system”.
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The term is also referred to as classification system , classification scheme , file plan , and records retention and disposition schedule (makes up a part of a classification system). Readers may also point out that classification and classification system are considered two different terms. In this blog, I treat both the same, but either approach is fine; basically, classification is represented in a system (classification system).
The need to classify – why classification is important
1. Classification provides context of records
Many people, particularly IT professionals, question the need for classifying documents when enterprise systems can fully index content. Indexing of content or metadata is not sufficient for establishing the context of records. This is important because we can segregate records of value from records of little or no value. While the value of certain information can be a subjective matter and differs depending on the goals for seeking the particular information, records classification helps narrow down places where reliable information may reside.
Subsequently, it aids searchability. When there is a particular topic of records to search but hardly any information other than a few keywords are provided, users initiate the research by identifying classifications that may apply to that particular topic. When records are filed properly and/or they are audited systematically by records managers, the success rate for this methodology is often high.
2. Classification specifies retention and disposition of records
“Storage is cheap, so why bother deleting data?” is another popular remark I often hear others say. Indeed portable storage units are getting cheaper. But to acquire sturdy, reliable and corporate-capable storage can be expensive. In fact, why keep records when you don’t need them or are not required to keep them and become subject to unnecessary litigation? Records that are destroyed according to law and organizational policy along with the retention/disposition schedule are far less likely, or not at all likely, to be subject to litigation or accused of spoliation. This is a financially sound risk management strategy.
Four Tips To Improve Filing Accuracy
Many would agree with me that an Electronic Document & Records Management System
(EDRMS) is only as good as its implementation success rate. An organization may have purchased the most up-to-date records management application with all the bells and whistles, but if end-users do not favour using it, the application hardly has any value or use to the
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organization. In other words, if records are not filied to the correct classification, they cannot be found easily, and the retention and disposition applied to them may be incorrect. On the other hand, end-users often find identifying the correct classification to file documents a timeconsuming task while others fear filing them incorrectly. Here are 4 tips to improve your organization’s filing accuracy while allowing users to classify records more easily.
1. Simplify your file plan scheme
Do you have too many classification code subsets or subsets of subsets? While end-users often favour a desktop folder-like structure, it can also be a cumbersome task to continuously drill down to aggregates of aggregates to find the right classification. Analyze which aggregates can be grouped together and which should be broken down. Break down groups only if functional activities seem too broad, the volume of records they fall under are so high that it is hard to navigate through them or manage them, or when the retention schedules are significantly different.
2. Use easily recognized codes
File codes should be easy to recognize. Utilize numeric or alphabetic codes that are easy to identify or frequently used by end-users as part of their business activities.
 Accronyms and abbreviations can be easier to recognize, if they are adopted organization-wide. Incorporate them as part of the classification code. Which classification code is easier to understand and identify? For Circulation – Times
Magazine, “055-33″ or “055-TIMES”?
 Incorporate unique identifiers or service numbers that the organization (office of the primary responsibility) uses to specify any procedural or contract documents. The fewer numbers or codes users need to become familiar with, the easier it is to adopt.
3. Create Cheat-sheets For Users
Perform a quick analysis of the end-user’s (or his/her colleague’s) types of documents they often generate or receive. Find those codes and create a commonly-used-classification list for the user to use as a reference. Or create a list for a group of users who share a similar job responsibility.
4. Consider an Intuitive Solution
What if we can still classify documents correctly while freeing users from having to perform that task? Can we really have the cake and eat it, too? Collabware CLM 2.3 for
SharePoint offers a way to classify documents automatically by utilizing a type of metadata
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value that end users input or select as part of their regular activities. For example, when a user creates a Contract document and inputs a contract number into the document, CLM will recognize that contract number value and classify the document accordingly. Furthermore, it can also complete (populate) other necessary values that are associated to the classification to metadata fields in the document’s profile.
End Note
Some argue records classification does not necessarily work for everyone. It may be true, classification expresses one type of records context that is often not specific enough. In a digital environment, records relationships can be dynamic and can constantly grow. But with the classification as the basis, users can utilize other metadata fields to create different types of records context.
Along with people and finances, we view information as a key resource. In achieving our strategic objectives, we recognise that information resources, supporting technology, and processes need to be coordinated and managed effectively. Underpinning this approach are the legal requirements set by government to ensure agencies manage their resources effectively, ethically and efficiently. Our information resources are contained in the form of data and records, and in the knowledge, experience and judgment of our people and intermediaries.
Information provides the key to improving our understanding of the systemic nature of the revenue system within the Australian economy. This means we need to develop some lead indicators which will allow us to dynamically respond to emerging issues, trends and changes to the economy as they occur.
We need to make better use of the information we collect from our clients and other sources to enhance our ability to target and monitor compliance on the basis of risk differentiation across market segments, products and capabilities. We also need to manage our information better to improve the ability of our clients to meet their obligations. In order to do this, we need to identify and manage information on the basis of a clear understanding of the leverage points for our business, so that we can make better-informed decisions. We need to know that we are doing the right things and that we are doing them right.
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As we move to providing more information to our clients and intermediaries online, it is important that we understand the expectations of the Australian community and plan to balance disclosure and transparency with fulfilling our legal and ethical obligations. We are acutely aware of the importance of adhering to privacy and security legislation.
We need to make sure we provide user-friendly, accurate and timely information to our clients, so they can fulfil their obligations. To continually improve the services we deliver, we need to develop a comprehensive understanding of the range of relationships we may have with our clients.
Where we want to be
 It is easier to find out something we didn't know.
 There is a greater return on investment for the information resources we manage.
 We are constantly monitoring the environment so that we can dynamically apply current
 information to the decisions we make.
We collect the information we need to provide real-time insight for forecasting, planning,
 delivery and evaluation.
Within our legislative responsibilities, we can readily exchange information across the revenue system.
 People contribute their knowledge and skills to provide quality information and are rewarded for their contribution to information sharing.
 We comply with relevant legislation and standards that relate to the management of records, both electronic and paper.
 Our information systems are well integrated to support the work we do.
 We have endorsed best practice in place instead of locally developed processes and procedures.
For help implementing one-time or periodic projects, Iron Mountain’s records management professionals have the flexibility and expertise to provide a range of classification, indexing, purging, destruction and relocation services. Special projects for records management supports the unique needs that go beyond daily records management requirements. In these areas, the Iron Mountain staff can be used as an extension of yours.
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Special Projects for Records Management include:
 Migration from active to inactive status — At some point, active records need to be reclassified as inactive; we can help with the decision-making and the migration process
 Indexing — Individual documents contain numerous levels and classes of information.
Indexing that information in standard fields makes it easier to find the documents you need, when you need them
 Inventory clean-ups — We can help organize your current records inventory and provide maintenance updates on an ongoing basis
 Pack and prep — When it’s time to move your records to an offsite facility, Iron
Mountain can manage the process efficiently
 Backfile scanning — Convert all your records, or just a portion of them, to highly accessible and searchable digital images
 Onsite/offsite audits — To satisfy an investigation or discovery request, we can audit your records onsite, or securely transport them to an offsite audit review room
 Purging — When in-house file room capacity is reached, additional space can be created by identifying semi-active records and shifting them to offsite storage
 Secure disposal — When retention deadlines expire and it’s time for records to be destroyed, we provide secure shredding services either onsite or at our facilities
 Document Recovery Services — If you aren’t storing your information assets in the optimal environmental conditions — or if they’ve been damaged in a disaster — we can connect you with experts to fulfill all of your record restoration needs.
The principles that companies should adopt to maximise the protection of confidential, market sensitive information are set out below.
1. It is good practice for companies to have in place internal systems to protect confidential, market sensitive information.
2. It is good practice for companies to maintain an insider list when conducting a confidential, market-sensitive transaction.
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3.
4.
It is good practice for companies that deal with confidential, market sensitive information to ensure their directors, executives and employees are aware of their confidentiality obligations.
It is good practice for companies to bind their advisers and other service providers by entering into confidentiality agreements before passing on confidential, market-sensitive information, and to require confirmation from their advisers and other service providers that they have in place policies and practices relating to the handling and control of confidential, market-sensitive information that satisfy the terms of the agreement.
5. It is desirable for companies to know which, when and how potential investors are being sounded on their behalf in relation to a transaction involving the company .
Internal policies: Protection of confidential, market-sensitive information
Principle 1: It is good practice for companies to have in place internal systems to protect confidential, market-sensitive information
A clear, documented policy which establishes the standards of behaviour and procedures for handling confidential, market-sensitive information with which all employees are expected to comply will assist a company to protect that information. It is good practice to assign clear responsibility within the company to an individual to oversee the implementation and enforcement of these policies and controls, as well as regular reviews of how the policies are working in practice. This in turn will help to ensure they are being implemented effectively.
Companies that are most successful at protecting confidential, market-sensitive information embed practices for protecting that information in the culture of their company and reinforce these through regular messages from top management. Individuals need to be aware of their personal obligations to preserve the confidentiality of company information and the purpose of various systems that are used to protect confidential, market-sensitive information.
Any policy on protecting confidential, market-sensitive information must be consistent with the company’s communication policy, and, if the company is a disclosing entity, its disclosure policy.
The ‘need to know’ principle
It is good practice to limit the number of people with access to confidential, market-sensitive information to the minimum number possible in the circumstances. That is, consideration needs
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to be given to how a company can limit access to information to only those people who absolutely require the information to undertake their business role.
Physical document management and information barriers
Taking particular care with documents relating to a proposed transaction can assist in minimising the leakage of confidential, market-sensitive information. Companies should consider implementing the following practices:
 ensuring that employees who have access to confidential, market-sensitive information are aware of its status — the information should be marked as confidential and market sensitive where appropriate
 ensuring physical copies of documents relating to confidential, market-sensitive transactions are securely stored when not in use and disposed of when no longer required, with access restricted to authorised staff only (‘clean desk’ policy)
 allocating dedicated printers, faxes, photocopiers, data rooms and other mechanisms for market-sensitive transactions, where reasonably practicable and justified by the circumstances of the transaction. Ideally, these will be password-protected printers if used by other persons outside the team
 adopting appropriate code names for transactions to disguise the nature of and parties involved in the transaction
 regularly reminding staff not to read confidential, market-sensitive documents in public places (for example, airports, planes) or have confidential discussions in places they could be overheard by others (for example, lifts, taxis), and
 ensuring that employees do not make unauthorised physical or electronic copies of confidential information and ensuring appropriate security measures are adopted where it is necessary for employees to remove or access physical or electronic copies of confidential information outside their workplace.
Companies should also, when necessary, ensure that systems and controls are in place to quarantine confidential, market-sensitive information from contractors and other service providers that share access to the company’s systems. Consideration should be given to establishing discrete physical work areas for project teams if the project is likely to last for a
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significant period and involve large numbers of personnel. Off-site locations may be appropriate in some cases.
Information technology controls
It is important that information technology systems and practices are sufficiently secure to ensure that confidential, market-sensitive information is not inadvertently disclosed. The levels of security that a company will implement will depend on the sensitivity of the transaction and the nature of the company’s information technology infrastructure, as there could be cost constraints for small companies. Systems and practices that may help include:
 storing confidential, market-sensitive information on systems that implement logical access controls and only allow access to authorised personnel — external servers and cloud-based systems may need to be reviewed to ensure security of access is maintained
 ensuring that all documents are password-protected from the outset
 providing separate passwords when transferring confidential, market-sensitive documents electronically. Also, such documents may be encrypted
 installing password-protection mechanisms for all electronic equipment, such as laptops, smart-phones, tablets, USB drives and other storage media containing confidential, market-sensitive information or providing physical tokens for access that generate a new number each minute that can be provided via a smart-phone, which replaces the password and ensures that directors, executives and external parties do not need to write down passwords which can be lost or stolen.
Automatic locking should be activated after periods of inactivity on these devices:
 installing appropriate software so that confidential, market-sensitive information held on a tablet or smart-phone can be remotely deleted, to prevent unauthorised third party access should the tablet or smart-phone be lost
 placing appropriate controls over staff access to other employees’ electronic mail
 careful use of PINs for conference calls, for example, using a PIN for a conference call on market-sensitive transactions once only rather than using the same PIN multiple times, and dedicating such PINs to conference calls on market-sensitive transactions rather than using group PINs accessed for general purposes. The person chairing the call should make every effort to be aware of the security procedures available to minimise the chance
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of inappropriate persons attending the conference call. This ensures that only the intended parties to the call can participate.
 operating a document management system, depending on the size and resources of the company, that has the capacity to log who has accessed particular files and when the access occurred, and conducting regular reviews to ensure data storage and controls are up-to-date and secure.
Contact with external parties

Given that the media and other external parties are likely to actively contact people they believe have inside knowledge, companies’ policies should explicitly cover contact with the media and other relevant external parties. The existence of a binding policy and appropriate training assists employees in dealing with these approaches.
Leak investigations

It is good practice for companies to have written policies and procedures on how a suspected leak of confidential, market-sensitive information is to be investigated, and employees should be made aware that such a process may be undertaken if there is a suspected leak. It is also good practice for companies to develop whistleblower policies that make it easy for employees to report instances of confidential, market-sensitive information being handled inappropriately.

Companies need to have in place procedures to announce confidential, market-sensitive information immediately should such information be leaked and confidentiality is lost. A company could have a draft announcement prepared as a risk management measure in relation to such an eventuality.

If a leak of confidential, market-sensitive information occurs, the company needs to consider whether to undertake or instigate a leak investigation that may include requesting its advisers to undertake a leak investigation of their own. Whether an investigation should be undertaken, and the level of formality and intensity of that investigation, will depend on the significance and impact of the leak. A review process not only highlights any risk areas but also acts as a deterrent, raising awareness and signalling to employees that the matter is taken seriously.

Companies should develop clear guidelines as to when leaks, or the results of leak investigations, should be referred to external regulators or law enforcement agencies.
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
Legal advisers may need to be involved in the investigation in the event that there is a subsequent external investigation by a regulator such as the Australian Securities and
Investments Commission (ASIC) or the Australian Prudential Regulatory Authority
(APRA).
Reasonable person test

The disclosure obligations under Listing Rules 3.1, 3.1A and 3.1B require that, ‘Once an entity becomes aware of any information concerning it that a reasonable person would expect to have a material effect on the price or value of an entity’s securities, the entity must immediately tell the ASX that information’. Companies need to be aware of the
‘reasonable person’ test in relation to market-sensitive confidential information, which may apply regardless of whether relevant transactions have completed.
Insider lists
Principle 2: It is good practice for companies to maintain an insider list when conducting a confidential, market-sensitive transaction
It is good practice for companies to maintain a register of both internal and external people (including directors and their staff) who are insiders on market-sensitive transactions, and efforts should be made to keep the number of these insiders to a minimum. A company may arrange for some or all of its advisers and other service providers to maintain their own insider lists. Where such an arrangement is adopted, the company should ensure that the list maintained by the adviser or service provider will be made available to it immediately upon request. Good practice is for companies to have a developed process for how and when people are brought
‘inside’ on sensitive transactions. It is appropriate for individuals to be reminded of their responsibilities each time they are made an insider.
It is also good practice for a company to implement a mechanism for removing from the insider list those people who are no longer involved in the transaction, as not all people remain insiders when the transaction takes place over a long period of time. Unless advisers or other service providers are maintaining their own lists, they should provide the company with a list of the people within their firm that have been or will be given access to the company’s confidential, market-sensitive information on engagement, and then ensure it is updated regularly. Lists need only be maintained until all the information about the transaction becomes public. Insider lists
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should detail individually the people who are actively working on a transaction and indicate their role. People who are provided with confidential, market-sensitive information about a transaction on an ancillary basis — such as those acting in a compliance role, or those who are providing word-processing, editing, IT or printing services — could be listed by category in circumstances where they might not be expected to see the details of a proposal. Some management personnel not involved in the transaction may also be covered by this principle. Confidential, marketsensitive information should only be provided to those authorised to receive it.
Company insiders should be made aware of the person to contact should they need to know who else is on the insider list, including those from external advisory firms and other service providers that have been given access to confidential, market-sensitive information in relation to a transaction. If an external adviser or other service provider needs to outsource a service in circumstances where confidential, market-sensitive information may be disclosed, it is good practice for the company to ensure the adviser or service provider first seeks the company’s consent and ensures insider lists are maintained by that third party.
Internal policies: Individual confidentiality obligations
Principle 3: It is good practice for companies that deal with confidential, market-sensitive information to ensure their directors, executives and employees are aware of their confidentiality obligations
Employment contracts
Appropriate confidentiality obligations and securities trading restrictions should be incorporated into employment contracts and directors’ appointment letters (by way of reference to the company trading policy for public listed companies) or other arrangements with all staff
(including temporary employees) who may have access to the company’s confidential, marketsensitive information. To ensure that a company can actively monitor any potential insider trading, employment contracts should also explicitly include the employer’s right to access all communication records including corporate email and phone records. An employee’s confidentiality obligations should survive beyond the termination of their employment.
Staff training
It is good practice to support policies dealing with confidentiality obligations with regular training programs and internal communications, as well as covering these matters in induction
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programs for new employees who might handle such information in their position. It is recommended that staff undergo training on the importance of not improperly or inadvertently divulging confidential information, with particular focus on employees with access to marketsensitive information. Staff should be made fully aware of the implications of improper disclosure of confidential, market-sensitive information and insider trading, and the potential civil and criminal liabilities for both an individual and the company.
Exiting employees
When employees who have access to confidential, market-sensitive information leave a company, it is good practice to conduct an exit interview with them. This provides an opportunity for the company to secure the return of confidential information from the exiting employee and remind them of their ongoing responsibility to maintain the confidentiality of inside information. It may be appropriate to require written acknowledgement of this.
Securities dealing
Public listed companies are required to have a securities trading policy that covers directors and executives (key management personnel). It is good practice for the trading policy to extend to include all executives and employees on an insider list for any transaction. In addition to complying with the ASX Listing Rules, the following are measures that can be considered to implement a sound framework in relation to securities trading while a company is engaged in a confidential, market-sensitive transaction.

Trading restrictions should extend to securities in companies with which the company is engaging in market-sensitive transactions.

Where there is a transaction underway and employees are in possession of confidential, market-sensitive information, a company should consider putting in place blackout periods restricting trading for those employees in its and the securities of other relevant entities.
Where companies are not subject to the ASX Listing Rules, it is good practice to develop and implement a securities trading policy applicable to directors, officers and employees on an insider list relevant to a transaction. Such a policy would restrict trading in the company’s and/or other parties’ securities by employees who have possession of confidential, market-sensitive information. The trading policy should address the legal prohibition on insider trading.
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Internal policies: Confidentiality agreements
Principle 4: It is good practice for companies to bind their advisers and other service providers by entering into confidentiality agreements before passing on confidential, market-sensitive information and to require confirmation from their advisers and other service providers that they have in place policies and practices relating to the handling and control of confidential, market-sensitive information that satisfy the terms of the agreement
Engaging advisers (such as investment banks, lawyers, accountants, tax advisers, specialist valuers, financial communications consultants and investor relations consultants) or other service providers (such as credit rating agencies, trading banks, stock brokers, registries and printers) to assist with market-sensitive transactions will necessitate the disclosure of confidential, market-sensitive information to those advisers. Companies need to consider how to minimise the risk that confidential, market-sensitive information provided to an adviser or other service provider is inadvertently or deliberately misused. All advisers should be required to sign confidentiality agreements for specific transactions (unless an umbrella agreement or some other engagement arrangement fully sets out the confidentiality arrangements applicable to the transaction or a fiduciary obligation applies). These confidentiality agreements should be entered into as soon as possible once an adviser accepts a role in a specific transaction, and not delayed until the commercial terms of a transaction are finally negotiated.
Among other things, these agreements should restrict an adviser’s use of the company’s confidential, market-sensitive information, including limiting the number of individuals within the adviser’s business that are given access to the information. The agreements may also cover conflicts of interest. Where an adviser has both private and public sides to its business, or needs to manage conflicts of interest, for example, between different clients, companies need to be confident that the adviser has sufficiently robust systems and controls in place to mitigate the risk of the company’s confidential, market-sensitive information leaking from the private to the public side, or being used inappropriately within the firm. It is good practice for the confidentiality agreements to confirm that the advisers and other service providers engaged by companies have in place the policies
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and practices relating to the handling and control of confidential, market-sensitive information that satisfy the terms of the agreement.
Umbrella agreements
Companies that are active participants in merger and acquisition transactions or capital raisings and use the services of investment banks and other advisers on a regular basis may consider setting up umbrella agreements. These types of arrangements set out in advance the general principles and practices an adviser must adhere to when undertaking work for the company. Specific transactions may require additional side agreements, which would be negotiated at the time of the transaction, but all general principles, including how third parties are to handle confidential, market-sensitive information, would be set out in the general umbrella agreement. Specific terms relating to confidentiality that an umbrella agreement might incorporate include:
- requiring advisers to:
 comply with the ‘need-to-know principle’ in relation to all confidential, market-sensitive information provided to them by the company, thereby restricting the people in the adviser’s firm to whom the confidential, market-sensitive information can be disclosed
 keep all documents and information belonging to the company in a safe and secure manner and, if such action is consistent with legal obligations, promptly return or destroy such material at the company’s request
 at the company’s request, establish and maintain an insider list in relation to any matter
- on which the company has instructed the adviser;
 conduct and report on any leak investigation requested by the company, and
 have in place appropriate IT systems and controls, including in relation to external servers, cloud-based systems, laptops, smartphones, tablets, USB drives and other storage media, and prohibiting advisers from:
 publicly disclosing they are acting for the company without prior approval from the company, and
 speaking to third parties in relation to the company without specific prior approval from the company.
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Companies can also give consideration to how their information may be used by other divisions of a service provider, and consider restricting how it may be divulged by the provider in an umbrella agreement (for example, the credit division of a trading bank not advising the capital markets division).
‘Beauty parades’
Conducting a tendering process, often referred to as a ‘beauty parade’, to select advisers for a specific confidential, market-sensitive transaction involves a high degree of disclosure, including to parties that miss out on a role in the transaction and have no ongoing relationship with the company. Before releasing any confidential, market-sensitive information to potential advisers, companies should require them to sign confidentiality agreements. If investment banks are participating in the tender, the confidentiality agreement should include restrictions on the particular business units of the bank that are permitted access to the confidential, marketsensitive information. Where possible, companies should keep the number of parties invited to tender to a minimum, taking into account the importance of competitive tension in selecting advisers.
Sounding the market
Principle 5: It is desirable for companies to know which, when and how potential investors are being sounded on their behalf in relation to a transaction involving the company
Sometimes it is important to obtain direct market feedback from potential or existing investors about a transaction, depending on the company’s circumstances and on market conditions in general. However, it is important that, when the company is involved in the process, the confidentiality of market-sensitive information is maximised when taking a sounding on capital raisings or merger and acquisition proposals, and formal procedures should be adopted to ensure there is no breach of continuous disclosure or insider trading laws. Companies should have a good understanding of the process that their banks or advisers intend to undertake if they sound the market in relation to a potential capital raising or other transaction. In order to arrive at this understanding, it is useful to request details of the actual process including:
 the specific investors the bank or adviser intends to approach and whether the investors have appropriate controls for protecting confidential, market-sensitive information and not using it to trade until it is generally available
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 the timing of any approaches
 the proposed limit on the time that information will be available to potential investors, and
 the intended number of potential investors, with a view to keeping it to the smallest number possible
 consideration of whether there is a need for a cleansing statement to be issued.
Checklist for companies when engaging advisers who will handle confidential, marketsensitive information
Advisers who regularly deal with confidential, market-sensitive information relating to transactions from a range of parties should have comprehensive and restrictive controls over personal trading in financial products by their directors and employees. The scope of these practices and procedures will depend on the specific circumstances of the advisory firm and its activities. It is good practice for companies engaging such advisers to enquire whether the adviser:
- maintains lists of restricted entities. Among other things, these lists should ordinarily cover:
 entities the firm is currently advising or acting on behalf of, and
 entities about which the firm has confidential, market-sensitive information
- requires pre-clearance of all securities trading.
In addition, further controls may be appropriate for investment banks and financial advisers. Therefore, it is good practice for companies engaging such advisers to enquire as to whether the adviser’s securities trading policy requires employees who may receive confidential, market-sensitive information to:
 disclose, on joining the firm, all their investments in financial products (both listed and unlisted)
 disclose, on joining the firm, all brokerage and trading accounts they control or in which they have an interest
 trade through an approved broker, and where that broker is not the firm itself, authorise the firm to receive copies of all contract notes or records of trade directly from the employee’s broker, and
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 impose, depending on the particular business area of the adviser, additional restrictions on trading including:
- minimum holding periods, and
- prohibitions on trading in financial products of issuers in particular industry sectors or competitors of particular clients.
It can also be useful for companies to enquire of their advisers if they have implemented an IT compliance system that tracks, audits and oversees employees’ securities transactions.
Information security management system
An information security management system (ISMS) is a set of policies concerned with information security management or IT related risks. The idioms arose primarily out of BS 7799.
The governing principle behind an ISMS is that an organization should design, implement and maintain a coherent set of policies, processes and systems to manage risks to its information assets, thus ensuring acceptable levels of information security risk.
ISMS description
As with all management processes, an ISMS must remain effective and efficient in the long term, adapting to changes in the internal organization and external environment. ISO/IEC 27001:2005 therefore incorporated the "Plan-Do-Check-Act" (PDCA), or Deming cycle, approach:
 The Plan phase is about designing the ISMS, assessing information security risks and

 selecting appropriate controls.
The Do phase involves implementing and operating the controls.
The Check phase objective is to review and evaluate the performance (efficiency and
 effectiveness) of the ISMS.
In the Act phase, changes are made where necessary to bring the ISMS back to peak performance.
ISO/IEC 27001:2005 is a risk based information security standard, which means that organizations need to have a risk management process in place. The risk management process fits into the PDCA model given above.
However, the latest standard, ISO/IEC 27001:2013, does not emphasise the Deming cycle anymore. The ISMS user is free to use any management process (improvement) approach like
PDCA or Six Sigmas DMAIC.
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Another competing ISMS is Information Security Forum's Standard of Good Practice (SOGP). It is more best practice-based as it comes from ISF's industry experiences.
Some best-known ISMSs for computer security certification are the Common Criteria (CC) international standard and its predecessors Information Technology Security Evaluation Criteria
(ITSEC) and Trusted Computer System Evaluation Criteria (TCSEC).
Some nations publish and use their own ISMS standards, e.g. the Department of Defense (DoD)
Information Technology Security Certification and Accreditation Process (DITSCAP) of USA, the Department of Defense Information Assurance Certification and Accreditation Process
(DIACAP) of USA, the German IT baseline protection, ISMS of Japan, ISMS of Korea,
Information Security Check Service (ISCS) of Korea.
Other frameworks such as COBIT and ITIL touch on security issues, but are mainly geared toward creating a governance framework for information and IT more generally. COBIT has a companion framework Risk IT dedicated to Information security.
There are a number of initiatives focused to the governance and organizational issues of securing information systems having in mind that it is business and organizational problem, not only a technical problem:
 Federal Information Security Management Act of 2002 is a United States federal law
 enacted in 2002 that recognized the importance of information security to the economic and national security interests of the United States. The act requires each federal agency to develop, document, and implement an agency-wide program to provide information security for the information and information systems that support the operations and assets of the agency, including those provided or managed by another agency, contractor, or other source.
Governing for Enterprise Security Implementation Guide of the Carnegie Mellon

University Software Engineering Institute CERT is designed to help business leaders implement an effective program to govern information technology (IT) and information security.
A Capability Maturity Model (CMM) for system security engineering was standardized in ISO/IEC 21827.
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 Information Security Management Maturity Model (known as ISM-cubed or ISM3) is another form of ISMS. ISM3 builds on standards such as ISO 20000, ISO 9001, CMM,
ISO/IEC 27001, and general information governance and security concepts. ISM3 can be used as a template for an ISO 9001-compliant ISMS. While ISO/IEC 27001 is controls based, ISM3 is process based and includes process metrics. ISM3 is a standard for security management (how to achieve the organizations mission despite of errors, attacks and accidents with a given budget). The difference between ISM3 and ISO/IEC 21827 is that ISM3 is focused on management, ISO 21287 on Engineering.
Need for an ISMS
Security experts say:
 information technology security administrators should expect to devote approximately one-third of their time addressing technical aspects. The remaining two-thirds should be spent developing policies and procedures, performing security reviews and analyzing risk, addressing contingency planning and promoting security awareness;
 security depends on people more than on technology;
 employees are a far greater threat to information security than outsiders;
 security is like a chain. It is only as strong as its weakest link;
 the degree of security depends on three factors: the risk you are willing to take, the functionality of the system and the costs you are prepared to pay;
 security is not a status or a snapshot, but a running process.
These facts inevitably lead to the conclusion that security administration is a management issue, and not a purely technical issue .
The establishment, maintenance and continuous update of an ISMS provide a strong indication that a company is using a systematic approach for the identification, assessment and management of information security risks. Critical factors of ISMS:



Confidentiality
Integrity : Protecting information from modification by unauthorized users.
Availability
: Protecting information from unauthorized parties.
: Making the information available to authorized users.
A company will be capable of successfully addressing information confidentiality , integrity and availability requirements which in turn have implications:
 business continuity;
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 minimization of damages and losses;
 competitive edge;
 profitability and cash-flow;
 respected organization image;
 legal compliance
The chief objective of information security management is to implement the appropriate measurements in order to eliminate or minimize the impact that various security related threats and vulnerabilities might have on an organization. In doing so, information security management will enable implementing the desirable qualitative characteristics of the services offered by the organization (i.e. availability of services, preservation of data confidentiality and integrity etc.).
By preventing and minimizing the impacts of security incidents, ISMS ensures business continuity, customer confidence, protect business investments and opportunities, or reduce damage to the business.
Large organizations, banks and financial institutes, telecommunication operators, hospital and health institutes and public or governmental bodies have many reasons for addressing information security very seriously. Legal and regulatory requirements which aim at protecting sensitive or personal data as well as general public security requirements impel them to devote the utmost attention and priority to information security risks.
Under these circumstances, the development and implementation of a separate and independent management process - namely an ISMS - is the only alternative.
The development of an ISMS framework based on ISO/IEC 27001:2005 entails the following six steps:
1.
Definition of security policy,
2.
Definition of ISMS scope,
3.
Risk assessment (as part of risk management),
4.
Risk management,
5.
Selection of appropriate controls and
6.
Statement of applicability
Critical success factors for ISMS
To be effective, the ISMS must:
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 have the continuous, unshakeable and visible support and commitment of the organization’s top management;
 be managed centrally, based on a common strategy and policy across the entire
 organization; be an integral part of the overall management of the organization related to and reflecting
 the organization’s approach to risk management, the control objectives and controls and the degree of assurance required; have security objectives and activities be based on business objectives and requirements

 and led by business management; undertake only necessary tasks and avoiding over-control and waste of valuable resources; fully comply with the organization philosophy and mindset by providing a system that instead of preventing people from doing what they are employed to do, it will enable them to do it in control and demonstrate their fulfilled accountabilities;
 be based on continuous training and awareness of staff and avoid the use of disciplinary measures and “police” or “military” practices;
 be a never ending process;
Dynamic issues in ISMS
There are three main problems which lead to uncertainty in information security management systems (ISMS):
 Dynamically changing security requirements of an organization
Rapid technological development raises new security concerns for organizations. The existing security measures and requirements become obsolete as new vulnerabilities arise with the development in technology. To overcome this issue, the ISMS should organize and manage dynamically changing requirements and keep the system up-to-date.
 Externalities caused by a security system
Externality is an economic concept for the effects borne by the party that is not directly involved in a transaction. Externalities could be positive or negative. The ISMS deployed in an organization may also cause externalities for other interacting systems. Externalities caused by the ISMS are uncertain and cannot be predetermined before the ISMS is deployed. The
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internalization of externalities caused by the ISMS is needed in order to benefit internalizing organizations and interacting partners by protecting them from vulnerable ISMS behaviors.
 Obsolete evaluation of security concerns
The evaluations of security concerns used in ISMS become obsolete as the technology progresses and new threats and vulnerabilities arise. The need for continuous security evaluation of organizational products, services, methods and technology is essential to maintain an effective
ISMS. The evaluated security concerns need to be re-evaluated. A continuous security evaluation mechanism of ISMS within the organization is a critical need to achieve information security objectives. The re-evaluation process is tied with dynamic security requirement management process discussed above.
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MODULE 2: GRAMMAR AND COMMUNICATION SKILLS
2.1 Vocabulary
A person's vocabulary is the set of words within a language that are familiar to that person. A vocabulary usually develops with age, and serves as a useful and fundamental tool for communication and acquiring knowledge. Acquiring an extensive vocabulary is one of the largest challenges in learning a second language.
Definition and usage
Vocabulary is commonly defined as "all the words known and used by a particular person". Knowing a word, however, is not as simple as simply being able to recognize or use it.
There are several aspects of word knowledge which are used to measure word knowledge.
Productive and receptive
The first major distinction that must be made when evaluating word knowledge is whether the knowledge is productive (also called achieve) or receptive (also called receive) and even within those opposing categories, there is often no clear distinction. Words that are generally understood when heard or read or seen constitute a person's receptive vocabulary.
These words may range from well known to barely known (see degree of knowledge below). A person's receptive vocabulary is the larger of the two. For example, although a young child may not yet be able to speak, write, or sign, he or she may be able to follow simple commands and appear to understand a good portion of the language to which he or she is exposed. In this case, the child's receptive vocabulary is likely tens, if not hundreds of words but his or her active vocabulary is zero. When that child learns to speak or sign, however, the child's active vocabulary begins to increase. It is possible for the productive vocabulary to be larger than the receptive vocabulary, for example in a second-language learner who has learned words through study rather than exposure, and can produce them, but has difficulty recognizing them in conversation.
Productive vocabulary, therefore, generally refers to words which can be produced within an appropriate context and match the intended meaning of the speaker or signer. As with receptive vocabulary, however, there are many degrees at which a particular word may be considered part of an active vocabulary. Knowing how to pronounce, sign, or write a word does not necessarily mean that the word has been used to correctly or accurately reflect the intended message of the utterance, but it does reflect a minimal amount of productive knowledge.
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Degree of knowledge
Within the receptive–productive distinction lies a range of abilities which are often referred to as degree of knowledge . This simply indicates that a word gradually enters a person's vocabulary over a period of time as more aspects of word knowledge are learnt. Roughly, these stages could be described as:
1.
Never encountered the word.
2.
Heard the word, but cannot define it.
3.
Recognize the word due to context or tone of voice.
4.
Able to use the word and understand the general and/or intended meaning, but cannot clearly explain it.
5.
Fluent with the word – its use and definition.
Depth of knowledge
The differing degrees of word knowledge imply a greater depth of knowledge , but the process is more complex than that. There are many facets to knowing a word, some of which are not hierarchical so their acquisition does not necessarily follow a linear progression suggested by degree of knowledge . Several frameworks of word knowledge have been proposed to better operationalise this concept. One such framework includes nine facets:
1.
orthography - written form
2.
phonology - spoken form
3.
reference - meaning
4.
semantics - concept and reference
5.
register - appropriacy of use
6.
collocation - lexical neighbours
7.
word associations
8.
syntax - grammatical function
9.
morphology - word parts
Reading vocabulary
A literate person's reading vocabulary is all the words he or she can recognize when reading. This is generally the largest type of vocabulary simply because a reader tends to be exposed to more words by reading than by listening. In many cases, notably Chinese characters,
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as in Chinese and Japanese kanji, where the pronunciation is not indicated by the written word, some words may be part of the written vocabulary but not the commonly spoken language. For example, a Chinese speaker may not recognize that (giraffe) is pronounced qi lin , a Japanese speaker may not recognize that (giraffe) is pronounced kirin .
Listening vocabulary
A person's listening vocabulary is all the words he or she can recognize when listening to speech. People may still understand words they were not exposed to before using cues such as tone, gestures, the topic of discussion and the social context of the conversation.
Speaking vocabulary
A person's speaking vocabulary is all the words he or she uses in speech. It is likely to be a subset of the listening vocabulary. Due to the spontaneous nature of speech, words are often misused. This misuse – though slight and unintentional – may be compensated by facial expressions, tone of voice, or hand gestures.
Writing vocabulary
Words are used in various forms of writing from formal essays to Twitter feeds. Many written words do not commonly appear in speech. Writers generally use a limited set of words when communicating: for example
 if there are a number of synonyms, a writer will have his own preference as to which of them to use.
 he is unlikely to use technical vocabulary relating to a subject in which he has no knowledge or interest.
Focal vocabulary
Focal vocabulary is a specialized set of terms and distinctions that is particularly important to a certain group: those with a particular focus of experience or activity. A lexicon, or vocabulary, is a language's dictionary: its set of names for things, events, and ideas. Some linguists believe that lexicon influences people's perception of things, the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis. For example, the Nuer of Sudan have an elaborate vocabulary to describe cattle. The
Nuer have dozens of names for cattle because of the cattle's particular histories, economies, and environments. This kind of comparison has elicited some linguistic controversy, as with the number of "Eskimo words for snow". English speakers with relevant specialised knowledge can also display elaborate and precise vocabularies for snow and cattle when the need arises.
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Vocabulary growth
During its infancy, a child instinctively builds a vocabulary. Infants imitate words that they hear and then associate those words with objects and actions. This is the listening vocabulary. The speaking vocabulary follows, as a child's thoughts become more reliant on his/her ability to self-express without relying on gestures or babbling. Once the reading and writing vocabularies start to develop, through questions and education, the child starts to discover the anomalies and irregularities of language.
In first grade, a child who can read learns about twice as many words as one who cannot.
Generally, this gap does not narrow later. This results in a wide range of vocabulary by age five or six, when an English-speaking child will have learned about 1500 words.
After leaving school, vocabulary growth reaches a plateau. People usually then expand their vocabularies by e.g. reading, playing word games, and by participating in vocabulary-related programs. Exposure to traditional print media teaches correct spelling and vocabulary, while exposure to text messaging leads to more relaxed word acceptability constraints.
The importance of a vocabulary
 An extensive vocabulary aids expression and communication.
 Vocabulary size has been directly linked to reading comprehension.
 Linguistic vocabulary is synonymous with thinking vocabulary.
 A person may be judged by others based on his or her vocabulary.
 Wilkinson (1972) once said," Without grammar, very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary, nothing can be conveyed."
Native- and foreign-language vocabulary size
Native-language vocabulary size
Native speakers' vocabularies vary widely within a language, and are especially dependent on the level of the speaker's education. A 1995 study shows that junior-high students would be able to recognize the meanings of about 10,000–12,000 words, whereas for college students this number grows up to about 12,000–17,000 and for elderly adults up to about 17,000–
21,000 or more.
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Foreign-language vocabulary
The effects of vocabulary size on language comprehension
The knowledge of the words deriving from the 3000 most frequent English word families and the 5000 most frequent words provides a comprehension of 95% of word use, and knowledge of 5000 word families is necessary for 99.9% word coverage.
Second language vocabulary acquisition
Learning vocabulary is one of the first steps in learning a second language, but a learner never finishes vocabulary acquisition. Whether in one's native language or a second language, the acquisition of new vocabulary is an ongoing process. There are many techniques which help one acquire new vocabulary.
Memorization
Although memorization can be seen as tedious or boring, associating one word in the native language with the corresponding word in the second language until memorized is considered one of the best methods of vocabulary acquisition. By the time students reach adulthood, they generally have gathered a number of personalized memorization methods.
Although many argue that memorization does not typically require the complex cognitive processing that increases retention (Sagarra & Alba, 2006), it does typically require a large amount of repetition, and spaced repetition with flashcards is an established method for memorization, particularly used for vocabulary acquisition in computer-assisted language learning. Other methods typically require more time and longer to recall.
Some words cannot be easily linked through association or other methods. When a word in the second language is phonologically or visually similar to a word in the native language, one often assumes they also share similar meanings. Though this is frequently the case, it is not always true. When faced with a false cognate, memorization and repetition are the keys to mastery. If a second language learner relies solely on word associations to learn new vocabulary, that person will have a very difficult time mastering false cognates. When large amounts of vocabulary must be acquired in a limited amount of time, when the learner needs to recall information quickly, when words represent abstract concepts or are difficult to picture in a mental image, or when discriminating between false cognates, rote memorization is the method to use. A neural network model of novel word learning across orthographies, accounting for L1-specific memorization abilities of L2-learners has recently been introduced (Hadzibeganovic & Cannas, 2009).
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The Keyword Method
One useful method of building vocabulary in a second language is the keyword method.
If time is available or one wants to emphasize a few key words, one can create mnemonic devices or word associations. Although these strategies tend to take longer to implement and may take longer in recollection, they create new or unusual connections that can increase retention. The keyword method requires deeper cognitive processing, thus increasing the likelihood of retention (Sagarra & Alba, 2006). This method uses fits within Paivio's (1986) dual coding theory because it uses both verbal and image memory systems. However, this method is best for words that represent concrete and imageable things. Abstract concepts or words that do not bring a distinct image to mind are difficult to associate. In addition, studies have shown that associative vocabulary learning is more successful with younger students (Sagarra & Alba,
2006). Older students tend to rely less on creating word associations to remember vocabulary.
Word lists
Several word lists have been developed to provide people with a limited vocabulary either for the purpose of rapid language proficiency or for effective communication. These include Basic English (850 words), Special English (1500 words) and Oxford 3000. The
Swadesh list was made for investigation in Linguistics.
British English/American English Vocabulary
British English American English anti-clockwise articulated lorry counter-clockwise trailer truck
Autumn barrister autumn, fall attorney bill (restaurant)
Biscuit block of flats bill, check cookie apartment building
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bonnet (clothing) bonnet (car)
Boot
Caravan car park chemist's shop chest of drawers
Chips the cinema clothes peg
Coffin
Crisps crossroads cupboard diversion drawing-pin drink-driving thumbtack drunk driving driving licence dual carriageway driver's license divided highway dummy (for baby) pacifier hat hood trunk trailer parking lot drugstore, pharmacy dresser, chest of drawers, bureau fries, French fries the movies clothespin coffin, casket potato chips intersection; crossroads (rural) cupboard (in kitchen) ; closet (for clothes etc) detour
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Dustbin dustman
Engine estate agent estate car
Film
Flat flat tyre
Flyover gearbox (car) gear-lever
Girl Guide ground floor handbag high street
Holiday hood (car)
Jam
Jug juggernaut garbage can, trash can garbage collector engine, motor real estate agent station wagon film, movie apartment, flat, studio flat tire overpass transmission gearshift
Girl Scout ground/first floor handbag, purse, shoulder bag main street vacation convertible top jam, preserves jug, pitcher
18-wheeler
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Lift
Lorry
Mad main road
Maize
Maths motorbike motorway motorway elevator truck, semi, tractor crazy, insane highway corn math motorcycle freeway, expressway highway, freeway, expressway, interstate highway, interstate
Nappy diaper naughts and crosses tic-tack-toe pants, underpants pavement pet hate
Petrol underpants, drawers sidewalk pet peeve gas, gasoline
The Plough pocket money
Post
Postbox postcode
Big Dipper allowance mail mailbox zip code
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postman
Pub public toilet
Railway return (ticket) reverse charge ring road road surface roundabout
Rubber
Rubbish rubbish-bin saloon (car)
Shop silencer (car) single (ticket) solicitor spanner
Sweets
Taxi mailman, mail carrier, letter carrier bar rest room, public bathroom railroad round-trip collect call beltway, freeway/highway loop pavement, blacktop traffic circle, roundabout eraser garbage, trash garbage can, trashcan sedan shop, store muffler one-way lawyer, attorney wrench candy taxi, taxi cab
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tea towel dish towel telly (informal) , TV television, TV third-party insurance liability insurance timetable schedule
Tin toll motorway
Torch
Trousers tube (train) can toll road, turnpike flashlight pants, trousers subway underground (train) subway
Vest undershirt waistcoat
Wallet wellington boots
Whisky vest wallet, billfold rubber boots, rain boots whisky/whiskey windscreen
Zip windshield zipper
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2.1.2 Building a Better Vocabulary
Everyone—from beginning learners in English to veterans in journalism—knows the frustration of not having the right word immediately available in that lexicon one carries between one's ears.
Sometimes it's a matter of not being able to recall the right word; sometimes we never knew it. It is also frustrating to read a newspaper or homework assignment and run across words whose meanings elude us. Language, after all, is power. When your children get in trouble fighting with the neighbors' children, and your neighbors call your children little twerps and you call their children nefarious miscreants—well, the battle is over and they didn't stand a chance. Building a vocabulary that is adequate to the needs of one's reading and self-expression has to be a personal goal for every writer and speaker.
Making It Personal
Using some durable piece of paper—white construction paper or the insides of the ripped-off covers of old notebooks—begin to write down words in small but readable script that you discover in your reading that you can't define. Read journals and newspapers that challenge you in terms of vocabulary. Pursue words actively and become alert to words that you simply overlooked in the past. Write down the words in one column; then, later, when you have a dictionary at your disposal, write down a common definition of the word; in a third column, write a brief sentence using the word, underlined.
Carry this paper or cardboard with you always. In the pauses of your busy day—when you're sitting on the bus, in the dentist's office, during commercials—take out the paper and review your vocabulary words until you feel comfortable that you would recognize (and be able to use) these words the next time you see them. The amazing thing is that you will see the words again—even "nefarious miscreants," and probably sooner than you thought. In fact, you might well discover that the words you've written down are rather common. What's happening is not that, all of a sudden, people are using words you never saw before, but that you are now reading and using words that you had previously ignored.
Using Every Resource
Most bookstores carry books on building a more powerful vocabulary, some of them with zany names such as Thirty Days to a More Powerful Vocabulary . If you've got money to spare or if
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they're on sale, buy them and use them; they can't hurt. Books that group words according to what they have in common—more in meaning than in spelling—are especially useful.
Newspapers often carry brief daily articles that explore the meanings of words and phrases.
These articles often emphasize peculiar words that won't find themselves into your working vocabulary, but they can still be fun. Often you'll find that learning one new word leads to other new words, little constellations of meaning that keep your brain cells active and hungry for more.
Make reading these articles one of your daily habits, an addiction, even.
Play dictionary games with your family in which someone uses the dictionary to find a neat word and writes down the real definition and everyone else writes down a fake (and funny) definition.
See how many people you can fool with your fake definitions.
Two trucks loaded with thousands of copies of Roget's Thesaurus collided as they left a New
York publishing house last Thursday, according to the Associated Press.
Witnesses were aghast, amazed, astonished, astounded, bemused, benumbed, bewildered, confounded, confused, dazed, dazzled, disconcerted, disoriented, dumbstruck, electrified, flabbergasted, horrified, immobilized, incredulous, nonplussed, overwhelmed, paralyzed, perplexed, scared, shocked, startled, stunned, stupified, surprised, taken aback, traumatized, upset. . . .
A thesaurus is like a dictionary except that it groups words within constellations of meaning. It is often useful in discovering just the right word you need to express what you want to say. Make sure you correctly understand the definition of a word (by using a dictionary) before using it in some important paper or report. Your bookstore salesperson can provide plenty of examples of an inexpensive thesaurus. The online Merriam Webster's WWWebster
Dictionary has access to both an extensive dictionary and a hyperlinked thesaurus. Links allow you to go conveniently back and forth between the dictionary and the thesaurus.
If you have a speedy computer processor and a fast hookup to the internet, we recommend the
Plumb Design Visual Thesaurus . Once the program is entirely loaded, type in a word that you would like to see "visualized," hit the return key, and a construct of verbal connections will float across the screen. Click on any of the words within that construct and a new pattern of connections will emerge. Try the Visual Thesaurus with several different kinds of words—verbs, adverbs, nouns, adjectives—and try adjusting some of the various controls on the bottom of the
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window. We do not recommend this web-site for slow machines; in fact, the bigger your monitor and the faster your computer and connection, the more satisfying this experience will be.
When people use a word that puzzles you, ask what it means! You'll find that most instructors, especially, are not in the least bothered by such questions—in fact, they're probably pleased that you're paying such close attention—but if they do seem bothered, write down the word and look it up later, before the context of the word evaporates.
Knowing the Roots
At least half of the words in the English language are derived from Greek and Latin roots.
Knowing these roots helps us to grasp the meaning of words before we look them up in the dictionary. It also helps us to see how words are often arranged in families with similar characteristics.
For instance, we know that sophomores are students in their second year of college or high school. What does it mean, though, to be sophomoric ? The "sopho" part of the word comes from the same Greek root that gives us philosophy , which we know means "love of knowledge." The
"ic" ending is sometimes added to adjectival words in English, but the "more" part of the word comes from the same Greek root that gives us moron . Thus sophomores are people who think they know a lot but really don't know much about anything, and a sophomoric act is typical of a
"wise fool," a "smart-ass"!
Let's explore further. Going back to philosophy , we know the "sophy" part is related to knowledge and the "phil" part is related to love (because we know that Philadelphia is the City of
Brotherly Love and that a philodendron loves shady spots). What, then, is philanthropy ? "Phil" is still love, and "anthropy" comes from the same Greek root that gives us anthropology , which is the study ("logy," we know, means study of any kind) of anthropos , humankind. So a philanthropist must be someone who loves humans and does something about it—like giving money to find a cure for cancer or to build a Writing Center for the local community college.
(And an anthropoid , while we're at it, is an animal who walks like a human being.) Learning the roots of our language can even be fun!
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Some common Greek and Latin roots:
Root (source) aster, astr (G) audi (L) bene (L) bio (G) dic, dict (L) fer (L) fix (L) geo (G) graph (G) jur, just (L) log, logue (G) luc (L)
Meaning English words astronomy, astrology star to hear audible, auditorium benefit, benevolent good, well life biology, autobiography dictionary, dictator to speak to carry transfer, referral fix, suffix, affix to fasten earth geography, geology graphic, photography to write law jury, justice word, thought, speech monolog(ue), astrology, biology, neologism
Light lucid, translucent manu (L) meter, metr (G) op, oper (L) path (G) ped (G) phil (G) phys (G) scrib, script (L) tele (G) hand measure work feeling child love body, nature to write far off manual, manuscript metric, thermometer operation, operator pathetic, sympathy, empathy pediatrics, pedophile philosophy, Anglophile physical, physics scribble, manuscript telephone,television
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ter, terr (L) vac (L) verb (L) vid, vis (L) earth empty word to see territory, extraterrestrial vacant, vacuum, evacuate verbal, verbose video, vision, television
2.2 Learning Prefixes and Suffixes
Knowing the Greek and Latin roots of several prefixes and suffixes (beginning and endings attached to words) can also help us determine the meaning of words. Ante , for instance, means before , and if we connect bellum with belligerant to figure out the connection with war , we'll know that antebellum refers to the period before war. (In the United States, the antebellum period is our history before the Civil War.)
Prefixes showing quantity
Meaning
Half
Prefixes in English Words semiannual, hemisphere
One
Two hundred thousand unicycle, monarchy, monorail binary, bimonthly, dilemma, dichotomy century, centimeter, hectoliter millimeter, kilometer
Prefixes showing negation without, no, not asexual, anonymous, irreverent, unskilled illegal, immoral, invalid, not, absence of, opposing, nonbreakable, antacid, antipathy, contradict against opposite to, complement to counterclockwise, counterweight do the opposite of, remove, dehorn, devitalize, devalue reduce
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do the opposite of, deprive disestablish, disarm of wrongly, bad misjudge, misdeed
Prefixes showing time before antecedent, forecast, precede, prologue after again
Postwar rewrite, redundant
Prefixes showing direction or position above, over supervise, supererogatory across, over transport, translate below, under infrasonic, infrastructure, subterranean, hypodermic in front of behind out of
Into around
With proceed, prefix
Recede erupt, explicit, ecstasy injection, immerse, encourage, empower circumnavigate, perimeter coexist, colloquy, communicate, consequence, correspond, sympathy, synchronize
Suffixes, on the other hand, modify the meaning of a word and frequently determine its function within a sentence. Take the noun nation , for example. With suffixes, the word becomes the adjective national , the adverb nationally , and the verb nationalize .
See what words you can come up with that use the following suffixes.
 Typical noun suffixes are -ence, -ance, -or, -er, -ment, -list, -ism, -ship, -ency, -sion, tion, -ness, -hood, -dom
 Typical verb suffixes are -en, -ify, -ize, -ate
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 Typical adjective suffixes are -able, -ible, -al, -tial, -tic, -ly, -ful, -ous, -tive, -less, -ish, ulent
 The adverb suffix is -ly (although not all words that end in -ly are adverbs—like friendly)
Using Your Dictionary
The dictionary should be one of the most often used books in your home. (We'll allow room for sacred texts here.) Place the dictionary somewhere so that you can find it immediately and use it often. If you do your reading and homework in the kitchen and the dictionary is on a shelf in the den or bedroom, it's too tempting to say "I'll look it up next time."
The home dictionary should be large enough to contain much more than just spellings. It should contain extensive definitions, word origins, and notes on usage. Carrying in your purse or backpack a pocket dictionary with more concise definitions is also a good idea. Get in the habit of turning to it often. A well worn dictionary is a beautiful thing.
Using the Internet
You can use the internet as an aid to vocabulary development by exploring the abundant opportunities for reading available on the World Wide Web. Capital Community College maintains an extensive list of online newspapers and commentary magazines.
Choose magazines such as Atlantic and Mother Jones that challenge your mind and your vocabulary with full-text articles. At least once a week read a major article with the purpose of culling from it some vocabulary words that are unfamiliar to you. We also recommend the New York Times
Book Review (which might require an easy, one-time, free registration).
Vocabulary University is a new online resource for working on groups of related vocabulary words in a puzzle format. Vocabulary U., a graphically rich Web site, is broken into beginning, intermediate, and college-level work. Vocabulary for English Language Learners is a treasury and nicely organized resources for ESL students. It is maintained by the College of Arts &
Sciences of Ohio University.
There are also at least two services that send you an e-mail message every day with a new word—with definitions, pronunciation guides, and examples of its use. Get in the habit of reading these messages regularly. Print out the words and definitions you think will be really useful, or write them down and carry them around with you on your personal vocabulary builder.
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 Garner's Usage Tip OF the Day Bryan Garner, author of A Dictionary of Modern
American Usage (Oxford University Press), offers this invaluable, free, daily e-mail service. Subscription is easy.
 http://www.us.oup.com/us/subscriptions/subscribe/?view=usa .
Vocab Vitamins (formerly "MyWordaDay"): Colin O'Malley maintains this Website, a treasure for people who know that developing an adequate vocabulary is not a short-term project. Users can visit the Website or have the WordaDay e-mailed to them. Words are arranged in meaningful groups and defined in painstaking and useful detail, with plenty


 of examples. http://www.vocabvitamins.com/ .
WORDSMITH: To subscribe or unsubscribe to A.Word.A.Day, send a message to wsmith@wordsmith.org
with the "Subject:" line as "subscribe " or "unsubscribe." The
Wordsmith has thousands of subscribers. It does a great job of discovering interesting themes and sources of words and then exploring those words—a word a day—for a week or so and then goes off to another theme and series of words.
Word of the Day: Maintained by Merriam Webster, Inc., the dictionary people. Go to the online WWWebster Dictionary and click on Word of the Day. From there, you can either subscribe to their free daily service or explore their archives. The guides for pronunciation are easier to follow than Wordsmith's and the examples are well founded and even fun. The Merriam-Webster people also provide a neat link directly to their word database so that you can highlight a word on a Web-page, click on their icon in your personal toolbar and get an instant and authoritative definition for that word.
The following resources do not go to your e-mail account, but they are easily available online — if you can just remember to visit them on a regular basis.
Word of the Day from the OED: Although the online version of the esteemed Oxford
English Dictionary is not available without a hefty price tag, you can get a free Word of the Day from the OED. You will find more information there about each word presented
 than you could ever imagine existed.
The New York Times Word of the Day : every weekday, a word chosen from the archives of the New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/learning/students/wordofday/ .
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 Michael Quinion's "World Wide Words" : investigating the use and creation of English words, from a British point of view. Fun to read, always something new.
http://www.worldwidewords.org/index.htm
.
 The Atlantic section on Language : from the Atlantic Monthly 's online journal. Select from "Word Court," "Word Fugitive," and "Word Police." http://www.theatlantic.com/language/ .
 Word Safari challenges web surfers' knowledge of vocabulary, and then sends them off on expeditions to see the chosen word used in context on the web. Aiming her Web site at
 building academic vocabulary skills, Ruth Pettis adds new vocabulary words every week. http://home.earthlink.net/~ruthpett/safari/index.htm
.
The Maven's Word for the Day was maintained by the Reference division of Random
House. It went belly-up in December 2001, but the archives are still available online. http://www.randomhouse.com/wotd/ .
You can also go to the web-site of the Scripps-Howard Annual National Spelling Bee and listen to words on Audio Paideia . The words are arranged in interesting groups. With RealAudio on your browser, you can hear the word and its definition and then try to spell it on your own. Have a dictionary handy! This Guide to Grammar and Writing also has a series of spelling tests that can be used as a vocabulary builders: go to the section on Spelling and choose the spelling tests
(bottom of the page) that use sound (the words you're asked to spell are accompanied by brief definitions).
Javascript Vocabulary Stretchers , maintained by John Gales, offers a new computer-graded vocabulary test (ten words) every week. Michael Quinion maintains a series of articles about the
English language called Wide World of Words (also available as a weekly e-mail newsletter).
You can spend days wandering through the maze of word-games and language resources listed in
Judi Wolinsky's Word Play .
Crossword puzzles are an excellent way to develop your vocabulary. Do the puzzles that appear in your local newspaper on a daily or weekly basis or try these interactive crossword puzzles on the internet:



The Christian Science Monitor Interactive Crossword Puzzle
Crossword of the Day
Michael Curl's Puzzles and Wordplay (This stuff is a real challenge!)
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Voycabulary.com
provides a means of typing in the URL of any Web page and the program will turn every word on that page into a clickable hyperlink that will reveal a definition in
Merriam-Webster's Dictionary or Thesaurus. Vocabulary will also translate a Web page into another language for you. Try it with this page, whose URL is http://www.ccc.commnet.edu/vocabulary.htm
Five-Dollar Words
An extensive vocabulary can be a powerful writing and speaking tool; it can also be misused, made to make others feel powerless. Never use a five-dollar word where a fifty-cent word will do the job just as well or better. Do we really need utilize when a three-letter word, use , will nicely suffice. Risible is a lovely word, but is it worth sending your readers to the dictionary when laughable is at hand? It's a good question. On the other hand, don't cheat yourself or your readers out of some important nuance of meaning that you've discovered in a word that's new to you. At some point you have to assume that your readers also have dictionaries. It's sometimes a tough line to draw—between being a pedantic, pretentious boor
(Oh, there are three dandies!) and being a writer who can take full and efficient advantage of the
English language's multifarious (another one!) resources.
Nouns are a part of speech typically denoting a person, place, thing, animal or idea. In linguistics, a noun is a member of a large, open lexical category whose members can occur as the main word in the subject of a clause, the object of a verb, or the object of a preposition.
Lexical categories are defined in terms of the ways in which their members combine with other kinds of expressions. The syntactic rules for nouns differ from language to language. In English, nouns are those words which can occur with articles and attributive adjectives and can function as the head of a noun phrase.
History
The English word noun comes from the Latin nōmen
, meaning "name" or "noun", a cognate of the Ancient Greek
ónoma
(also meaning "name" or "noun").
Word classes like nouns were first described by Pāṇini in the Sanskrit language and by Ancient
Greek grammarians, and were defined by the grammatical forms that they take. In Greek and
Sanskrit, for example, nouns are categorized by gender and inflected for case and number.
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Because nouns and adjectives share these three grammatical categories, grammarians sometimes do not distinguish between the two. For example, Dionysius Thrax uses the term
ónoma
for both, with words of adjectival type largely contained in the subclass that he describes as paragōgón
(plural paragōgá
), meaning "derived".
Definition
A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea. Whatever exists, we assume, can be named, and that name is a noun. A proper noun , which names a specific person, place, or thing
(Carlos, Queen Marguerite, Middle East, Jerusalem, Malaysia, Presbyterianism, God, Spanish,
Buddhism, the Republican Party), is almost always capitalized. A proper noun used as an addressed person's name is called a noun of address . Common nouns name everything else, things that usually are not capitalized.
A group of related words can act as a single noun-like entity within a sentence. A Noun Clause contains a subject and verb and can do anything that a noun can do:
What he does for this town is a blessing.
A Noun Phrase , frequently a noun accompanied by modifiers, is a group of related words acting as a noun: the oil depletion allowance; the abnormal, hideously enlarged nose.
There is a separate section on word combinations that become Compound Nouns — such as daughter-in-law, half-moon, and stick-in-the-mud.
2.3.1 Classification of nouns
Proper nouns and common nouns
Main article: Proper noun
A proper noun or proper name is a noun representing unique entities (such as Earth , India ,
Jupiter , Harry , or BMW ), as distinguished from common nouns which describe a class of entities
(such as city , animal, planet , person or car ).
Countable and uncountable nouns
Count nouns or countable nouns are common nouns that can take a plural, can combine with numerals or counting quantifiers (e.g., one , two , several , every , most ), and can take an indefinite article such as a or an (in languages which have such articles). Examples of count nouns are chair , nose , and occasion . Mass nouns or uncountable (or non-count ) nouns differ from count nouns in precisely that respect: they cannot take plurals or combine with number words or the above type of quantifiers. For example, it is not possible to refer to a furniture or
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three furnitures . This is true even though the pieces of furniture comprising furniture could be counted. Thus the distinction between mass and count nouns should not be made in terms of what sorts of things the nouns refer to, but rather in terms of how the nouns present these entities. Many nouns have both countable and uncountable uses; for example, beer is countable in "give me three beers", but uncountable in "he likes beer".
Collective nouns
Collective nouns are nouns that refer to groups consisting of more than one individual or entity, even when they are inflected for the singular. Examples include committee , herd , and school (of fish). These nouns have slightly different grammatical properties than other nouns.
For example, the noun phrases that they head can serve as the subject of a collective predicate, even when they are inflected for.
Concrete nouns and abstract nouns
Further information: Physical body and Abstract object
Concrete nouns refer to physical entities that can, in principle at least, be observed by at least one of the senses (for instance, chair , apple , Janet or atom ). Abstract nouns , on the other hand, refer to abstract objects; that is, ideas or concepts (such as justice or hatred ). While this distinction is sometimes exclusive, some nouns have multiple senses, including both concrete and abstract ones; consider, for example, the noun art , which usually refers to a concept (e.g., Art is an important element of human culture ) but which can refer to a specific artwork in certain contexts (e.g., I put my daughter's art up on the fridge ).
Some abstract nouns developed etymologically by figurative extension from literal roots.
These include drawback, fraction, holdout, and uptake . Similarly, some nouns have both abstract and concrete senses, with the latter having developed by figurative extension from the former.
These include view, filter, structure, and key .
In English, many abstract nouns are formed by adding noun-forming suffixes ( -ness , -ity , -ion ) to adjectives or verbs. Examples are happiness (from the adjective happy ), circulation (from the verb circulate ) and serenity (from the adjective serene ).
Noun phrases
A noun phrase is a phrase based on a noun, pronoun, or other noun-like word (nominal) optionally accompanied by modifiers such as determiners and adjectives. A noun phrase functions within a clause or sentence in a role such as that of subject, object, or complement of a
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verb or preposition. For example, in the sentence "The black cat sat on a dear friend of mine", the noun phrase the black cat serves as the subject, and the noun phrase a dear friend of mine serves as the complement of the preposition on .
2.3.2 Substantive as a word for noun
"Substantive" redirects here. For other uses, see Substance (disambiguation).
Starting with old Latin grammars, many European languages use some form of the word substantive as the basic term for noun (for example, Spanish sustantivo , "noun"). Nouns in the dictionaries of such languages are demarked by the abbreviation s.
or sb.
instead of n , which may be used for proper nouns instead. This corresponds to those grammars in which nouns and adjectives phase into each other in more areas than, for example, the English term predicate adjective entails. In French and Spanish, for example, adjectives frequently act as nouns referring to people who have the characteristics of the adjective. The most common metalanguage to name this concept is nominalization . An example in English is:
This legislation will have the most impact on the poor .
Similarly, an adjective can also be used for a whole group or organization of people:
The Socialist International .
Hence, these words are substantives that are usually adjectives in English.
The word nominal also overlaps in meaning and usage with noun and adjective .
2.3.3 Categories of Nouns
Nouns can be classified further as count nouns , which name anything that can be counted (four books, two continents, a few dishes, a dozen buildings); mass nouns (or non-count nouns), which name something that can't be counted (water, air, energy, blood); and collective nouns , which can take a singular form but are composed of more than one individual person or items (jury, team, class, committee, herd). We should note that some words can be either a count noun or a non-count noun depending on how they're being used in a sentence: a.
He got into trouble. (non-count) b.
He had many troubles. (countable) c.
Experience (non-count) is the best teacher. d.
We had many exciting experiences (countable) in college.
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Whether these words are count or non-count will determine whether they can be used with articles and determiners or not. (We would not write "He got into the troubles," but we could write about "The troubles of Ireland."
Some texts will include the category of abstract nouns , by which we mean the kind of word that is not tangible, such as warmth, justice, grief, and peace . Abstract nouns are sometimes troublesome for non-native writers because they can appear with determiners or without: "Peace settled over the countryside." "The skirmish disrupted the peace that had settled over the countryside." See the section on Plurals for additional help with collective nouns , words that can be singular or plural, depending on context.
2.3.4 Forms of Nouns
Nouns can be in the subjective, possessive, and objective case. The word case defines the role of the noun in the sentence. Is it a subject, an object, or does it show possession?
 The English professor [subject] is tall.
 He chose the English professor [object].
 The English professor's [possessive] car is green.
Nouns in the subject and object role are identical in form; nouns that show the possessive, however, take a different form. Usually an apostrophe is added followed by the letter s (except for plurals, which take the plural "-s" ending first, and then add the apostrophe). See the section on Possessives for help with possessive forms. There is also a table outlining the cases of nouns and pronouns .
Almost all nouns change form when they become plural , usually with the simple addition of an -s or -es . Unfortunately, it's not always that easy, and a separate section on Plurals offers advice on the formation of plural noun forms.
Assaying for Nouns*
Back in the gold rush days, every little town in the American Old West had an assayer's office, a place where wild-eyed prospectors could take their bags of ore for official testing, to make sure the shiny stuff they'd found was the real thing, not "fool's gold." We offer here some assay tests for nouns. There are two kinds of tests: formal and functional — what a word looks like (the endings it takes) and how a word behaves in a sentence.
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2.3.4 Additional Help With Nouns
A simple exercise in Naming Nouns will help answer any questions you might have about count and non-count nouns and help you distinguish between plural and singular forms.
The categories of count and non-count nouns can be confusing, however, and we suggest further review, especially for writers for whom English is a second language. The second section we offer is called Count and Non-Count , a basic review of those concepts and their uses in sentences, with many examples. Third, we offer WORKING WITH NOUNS , a more extensive
(and somewhat more advanced) review of the count and non-count distinction, along with exercises. Finally, just when you thought you couldn't stand such riches, we suggest you review the uses of Articles, Determiners, and Quantifiers with count and non-count nouns.
Pronouns
Nouns and noun phrases can typically be replaced by pronouns, such as he , it , which , and those , in order to avoid repetition or explicit identification, or for other reasons. For example, in the sentence Janeth thought that he was weird , the word he is a pronoun standing in place of the name of the person in question. The English word one can replace parts of noun phrases, and it sometimes stands in for a noun. An example is given below:
John's car is newer than the one that Bill has.
But one can also stand in for bigger sub parts of a noun phrase. For example, in the following example, one can stand in for new car .
This new car is cheaper than that one .
2.4 Pronouns
In linguistics and grammar, a pronoun is a word that substitutes for a noun or noun phrase. It is a particular case of a pro-form. Pronouns have traditionally been regarded as one of the parts of speech, but some modern theorists would not limit them to a single class because of the variety of functions they perform, including that of the personal pronouns, relative pronouns, interrogative pronouns, demonstrative pronouns and indefinite pronouns.
The use of pronouns often involves anaphora, where the meaning of the pronoun is dependent on another referential element. This applies particularly to the (third-person) personal pronouns. The referent of the pronoun is often the same as that of a preceding (or sometimes following) noun phrase, called the antecedent of the pronoun. For example, in the sentence That poor man looks as if he needs a new coat , the antecedent of the pronoun he is the noun phrase
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that poor man . (Pronouns used without antecedents are sometimes called unprecursed pronouns.) Another type of antecedent is that found with relative pronouns, as in the woman who looked at you , where the woman is the antecedent of the relative pronoun who .
2.4.1 Classification
Pronouns can be divided into several categories: personal, indefinite, reflexive, reciprocal, possessive, demonstrative, interrogative and relative.
Personal
Main article: Personal pronoun
English personal pronouns
Case
Person Number
Singular
Subject
I
Object
Me
First
Plural we Us
Second
Singular
Plural you you
You
You
Third
Singular
Plural he, she, it they him, her, it
Them
Personal pronouns may be classified by person , number and case . In the English language, there are three persons ( first , second and third ), each of which can be divided into two forms by number (singular and plural), as in the table. Third person also distinguishes gender
(male, female or neuter).
English has two cases, subject and object . Subject pronouns are used when the person or thing is the subject of the sentence or clause (I like to eat chips, but she does not.
). Object pronouns are used when the person or thing is the object of the sentence or clause ( John likes me but not her).
Other distinctions include:
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 Second person formal and informal pronouns (T-V distinction). For example, vous and tu in French. There is no distinction in modern English though Elizabethan English marked the distinction with "thou" (singular informal) and "you" (plural or singular formal).
 Inclusive and exclusive "we" pronouns indicate whether the audience is included. There
 is no distinction in English.
Intensive pronouns , also known as emphatic pronouns, re-emphasize a noun or pronoun that has already been mentioned. English uses the same forms as the reflexive pronouns; for example: "I did it myself " (contrast reflexive use, I did it to myself.
).
 Direct and indirect object pronouns . English uses the same oblique form for both; for example: Mary loves him (direct object); Mary sent him a letter (indirect object).
 Prepositional pronouns come after a preposition. No distinct forms exist in English; for example: Anna and Maria looked at him .
 Disjunctive pronouns are used in isolation or in certain other special grammatical contexts. No distinct forms exist in English; for example: Who does this belong to?
Me.
 Dummy pronouns are used when grammatical rules require a noun (or pronoun), but none is semantically required (It is raining.
).
 Weak pronouns .
Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive pronouns are used when a person or thing acts on itself, for example, John cut himself. In English they all end in -self or -selves and must refer to a noun phrase elsewhere in the same clause.
Reciprocal Pronouns
Reciprocal pronouns refer to a reciprocal relationship ( each other , one another ). They must refer to a noun phrase in the same clause. An example in English is: They do not like each other.
Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns are used to indicate possession or ownership. Some occur as independent noun phrases: mine , yours , hers , ours , yours , theirs . An example is: Those clothes are mine. Others do not: my , your , her , our , your , their , as in, I lost my wallet.
(Depending on the context, his and its can fall in either category.) Because the latter have a syntactic role close to that of adjectives, always qualifying a noun, some grammarians classify them as determiners.
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They replace possessive noun phrases. As an example, Their crusade to capture our attention could replace The advertisers' crusade to capture our attention.
Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns (in English, this , that and their plurals these , those ) often distinguish their targets by pointing or some other indication of position; for example, I'll take these. They may also be anaphoric , depending on an earlier expression for context, for example,
A kid actor would try to be all sweet, and who needs that?
Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns, the largest group of pronouns, refer to one or more unspecified persons or things. One group in English includes compounds of some, any, every and no with
-thing , -one and -body , for example: Anyone can do that.
Another group, including many , more , both , and most , can appear alone or followed by of.
 Distributive pronouns are used to refer to members of a group separately rather than
 collectively. ( To each his own.
)
Negative pronouns indicate the non-existence of people or things. (Nobody thinks that.
)
Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns ( who , whom , whose , what , which and that ) refer back to people or things previously mentioned: People who smoke should quit now.
They are used in relative clauses. Indefinite relative pronouns have some of the properties of both relative pronouns and indefinite pronouns. They have a sense of "referring back", but the person or thing to which they refer has not previously been explicitly named: I know what I like.
Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns ask which person or thing is meant. In reference to a person, one may use who (subject), whom (object) or whose (possessive); for example, Who did that?
In colloquial speech, whom is generally replaced by who . Non-personal pronouns ( which and what ) have only one form. In many languages (e.g., Czech, English, French, Interlingua, and Russian), the sets of relative and interrogative pronouns are nearly identical. Compare English: Who is that?
(interrogative) to I know who that is.
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2.4.2 Pronouns and determiners
Pronoun Determiner
Personal (1st/2nd) we we Brits our freedom Possessive ours
Demonstrative this this gentleman
Indefinite some some frogs
Interrogative who which option
Pronouns and determiners are closely related, and some linguists think pronouns are actually determiners without a noun or a noun phrase. The table shows their relationships in
English. In some languages, including German, the term “determiner” is not used, or has only come into limited use recently. Instead determiners are defined as pronouns. What would be called a pronoun in English is, if necessary, specified as a “substantival pronoun”. Determiners are called “adjectival pronouns”.
2.4.3 The views of different schools
Pronouns have been classified as one of the parts of speech since at least the 2nd century BC when they were included in the Greek treatise Art of Grammar . Objections to this approach have appeared among grammatical theories in the 20th century. Their grammatical heterogeneity, many-sided pronouns were underlined, which were classified as follows:
 "indicative words" (Karl Brugmann, Karl Bühler, Uriel Weinreich);
 "indexes" or "indicators" (Charles Sanders Peirce, William Edward Collinson);
 "words with changeable signification" (Adolf Noreen);
 "moveable identifiers" (Otto Jespersen, Roman Jakobson);
 "updating" or "means of transferring from language to speech" (Charles Bally, Émile


Benveniste) ;
 "words of subjective-objective lexical meaning" (Alexey Peshkovsky);
 "word remnants" or "substitutes" (Lev Shcherba, Leonard Bloomfield, Zellig Harris);
"determiners whose NP complements have been deleted" (Paul Postal);
"represents" (Ferdinand Brunot);
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 "survivals of a special part of speech" (Viktor Vinogradov).
Pronominal
A pronominal is a phrase that acts as a pronoun. For example, in "That's not the one I wanted", the phrase the one is a pronominal.
2.5 ADJECTIVES
An adjective is a word that describes, identifies, modifies, or quantifies something (a noun or a pronoun). In the phrase, "the black cat" the word black is an adjective because it describes the cat. In English, an adjective usually comes before the noun it pertains to (for example, a red apple or a cute cat.). Adjectives can be classified into many categories. In
English, adjectives are generally used in the order: quantity-->opinion-->size-->age-->shape--
>color-->origin-->material-->purpose . Some of these categories are (roughly in the order in which adjectives are used in English):
 quantity - few, no, one, two, three, four, little, several, many, all, some, every, each, ...
 opinion - good, better, best, bad, worse, worst, wonderful, splendid, mediocre, awful, fantastic, pretty, ugly, clean, dirty, wasteful, difficult, comfortable, uncomfortable, valuable, worthy, worthless, useful, useless, important, evil, angelic, rare, scarce, poor, rich, lovely, disgusting, amazing, surprising, loathesome, unusual, usual, pointless, pertinent, ...
 personality/emotion - happy, sad, excited, scared, frightened, outgoing, funny, sad, zany, grumpy, cheerful, jolly, carefree, quick-witted, blissful, lonely, elated, ...
 sound - loud, soft, silent, vociferous, screaming, shouting, thunderous, blaring, quiet, noisy, talkative, rowdy, deafening, faint, muffled, mute, speechless, whispered, hushed,
...
 taste - sweet, sour, acidic, bitter, salty, tasty, delicious, savory, delectable, yummy, bland, tasteless, palatable, yummy, luscious, appetizing, tasteless, spicy, watery, ...
 touch - hard, soft, silky, velvety, bumpy, smooth, grainy, coarse, pitted, irregular, scaly, polished, glossy, lumpy, wiry, scratchy, rough, glassy, ...
 size, weight - heavy, light, big, small, little, tiny, tall, short, fat, thin, slender, willowy, lean, svelte, scrawny, skeletal, underweight, lanky, wide, enormous, huge, vast, great,
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gigantic, monstrous, mountainous, jumbo, wee, dense, weighty, slim, trim, hulking, hefty, giant, plump, tubby, obese, portly, ...
 smell - perfumed, acrid, putrid, burnt, smelly, reeking, noxious, pungent, aromatic,

 fragrant, scented, musty, sweet-smelling,... speed - quick, fast, slow, speeding, rushing, bustling, rapid, snappy, whirlwind, swift, hasty, prompt, brief, ... temperature - hot, cold, freezing, icy, frigid, sweltering, wintry, frosty, frozen, nippy, chilly, sizzling, scalding, burning, feverish, fiery, steaming, ...

 age - young, old, baby, babyish, teenage, ancient, antique, old-fashioned, youthful, elderly, mature, adolescent, infantile, bygone, recent, modern, ... distance - short, long, far, distant, nearby, close, faraway, outlying, remote, far-flung, neighboring, handy, ...
 shape - round, circular, square, triangular, oval, sleek, blobby, flat, rotund, globular, spherical, wavy, straight, cylindrical, oblong, elliptical, zigzag, squiggly, crooked, winding, serpentine, warped, distorted, ...
 miscellaneous qualities- full, empty, wet, dry, open, closed , ornate, ...
 brightness - light, dark, bright, shadowy, drab, radiant, shining, pale, dull, glowing, shimmering, luminous, gleaming, ...
 color - pink, red, orange, yellowish, dark-green, blue, purple, black, white, gray, brown, tanned, pastel, metallic, silver, colorless, transparent, translucent, ...
 time - early, late, morning, night, evening, everlasting, initial, first, last, overdue, belated,

 long-term, delayed, punctual, ... origin/location - lunar, northern, oceanic, polar, equatorial, Floridian, American, Spanish,
Canadian, Mexican, French, Irish, English, Australian, ... material - glass, wooden, cloth, concrete, fabric, cotton, plastic, leather, ceramic, china, metal, steel, silicon, ...
 purpose - folding, swinging, work, racing, cooking, sleeping, dance, rolling, walking, ...
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Example of the Sequence of Multiple Adjectives in Chart Form:
QUANTITY OPINION SIZE AGE SHAPE COLOR ORIGIN MATERIAL PURPOSE NOUN
Five huge young black Canadian bears
Many
Battered
Magnificent old shapeless gray antique British cotton work reference pants books
One
Few
Many
Several
Studious teenaged
Shiny well-made tiny
Cheap large
American round blue Indian elongated brown wooden purple polyester fishing boy gems boats sleeping bags
2.5.1 Comparative and Superlative Adjectives
A comparative adjective is used to compare two things. A superlative adjective is used when you compare three or more things. For example, looking at apples you can compare their size, determining which is big, which is bigger, and which is biggest. The comparative ending
(suffix) for short, common adjectives is generally "-er"; the superlative suffix is generally "-est."
For most longer adjectives, the comparative is made by adding the word "more" (for example, more comfortable) and the superlative is made by adding the word "most" (for example, most comfortable).
If a 1-syllable adjective ends in "e", the endings are "-r" and "-st", for example: wise, wiser, wisest.
If a 1-syllable adjective ends in "y", the endings are "-er" and "-est", but the y is sometimes changed to an "i". For example: dry, drier, driest.
If a 1-syllable adjective ends in a consonant (with a single vowel preceding it), then the consonant is doubled and the endings "-er" and "-est" are used, for example: big, bigger, biggest.
If a 2-syllable adjective ends in "e", the endings are "-r" and "-st", for example: gentle, gentler, gentlest.
If a 2-syllable adjective ends in "y", the endings are "-ier" and "-iest", for example: happy, happier, happiest.
Some 2-syllable adjectives use the standard "-er" and "-est suffixes", including adjectives that end in "er", "le", or "ow". For example: narrow, narrower, narrowest.
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For most adjectives with two or more syllables, the comparative is formed by adding the word
"more," and you form the superlative by adding the word "most", for example: colorful, more colorful, most colorful.
Some comparative and superlative adjectives are irregular, including some very common ones such as good/better/best and bad/worse/worst.
Irregular and confusing adjectives Comparative Form Superlative Form
Bad worse worst
Good far (place) better farther best farthest far (place or time) late (time) late (order) little (size) little (amount) many/much/some old (people) old (people or things) further later
Latter littler less more elder older furthest latest last littlest least most eldest oldest
Adjective: another definition

In linguistics, an 'adjective' is a 'describing' word ; the main syntactic role of which is to qualify a noun or noun phrase. Adjectives are one of the traditional eight English parts of speech, although linguists today distinguish adjectives from words such as determiners that formerly were considered to be adjectives. In this paragraph, "traditional" is an adjective, and in the preceding paragraph, "main" is..
Examples
 That's an interesting idea. (attributive)
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 That idea is interesting . (predicative)
 Tell me something interesting . (postpositive)
 The good , the bad , and the ugly . (substantive)
2.5.2 Distribution
Most, but not all, languages have adjectives. Those that lack them typically use words of another part of speech, often verbs, to serve the same semantic function; an example, such a language might have a verb that means "to be big", and would use as attributive verb construction analogous to "big-being house" to express what English expresses as "big house".
Even in languages that do have adjectives, one language's adjective might not be another's; for example, whereas English uses "to be hungry" ( hungry being an adjective), Dutch and French use " honger hebben " and " avoir faim ," respectively (literally "to have hunger", hunger being a noun), and whereas Hebrew uses the adjective, roughly ("in need of"), English uses the verb "to need".
Adjectives form an open class of words in most languages that have them; that is, it is relatively common for new adjectives to be formed via such processes as derivation. Bantu languages are well known for having only a small closed class of adjectives, however, and new adjectives are not easily derived. Similarly, native Japanese adjectives ( i -adjectives) are a closed class (as are native verbs), although nouns (which are open class) may be used in the genitive and there is the separate class of adjectival nouns ( na -adjectives), which is also open, and functions similarly to noun adjuncts in English.
2.5.3 Adjectives and Adverbs
Many languages, including English, distinguish between adjectives, which qualify nouns and pronouns, and adverbs, which modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Not all languages have exactly this distinction and many languages, including English, have words that can function as both. For example, in English fast is an adjective in "a fast car" (where it qualifies the noun car ), but an adverb in "he drove fast" (where it modifies the verb drove ).
In Dutch and German, adjectives and adverbs are usually identical in form and many grammarians do not make the distinction, but patterns of inflection can suggest a difference:
Eine kluge neue Idee.
A clever new idea.
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Eine klug ausgereifte Idee.
A cleverly developed idea.
Whether these are distinct parts of speech or distinct usages of the same part of speech is a question of analysis. It is worth noting that while German linguistic terminology distinguishes adverbiale from adjektivische Formen , school German refers to both as Eigenschaftswörter
("property words").
2.5.4 Determiners
Linguists today distinguish determiners from adjectives, considering them to be two separate parts of speech (or lexical categories ), but formerly determiners were considered to be adjectives in some of their uses. In English dictionaries, which typically still do not treat determiners as their own part of speech, determiners are often recognizable by being listed both as adjectives and as pronouns. Determiners are words that are neither nouns nor pronouns, yet reference a thing already in context. Determiners generally do this by indicating definiteness (as in a vs. the ), quantity (as in one vs. some vs. many ), or another such property.
Types of use
A given occurrence of an adjective can generally be classified into one of four kinds of uses:
1.
Attributive adjectives are part of the noun phrase headed by the noun they modify; for example, happy is an attributive adjective in "happy people". In some languages, attributive adjectives precede their nouns; in others, they follow their nouns; and in yet others, it depends on the adjective, or on the exact relationship of the adjective to the noun. In English, attributive adjectives usually precede their nouns in simple phrases, but often follow their nouns when the adjective is modified or qualified by a phrase acting as an adverb. For example: "I saw three happy kids", and "I saw three kids happy enough to jump up and down with glee." See also Postpositive adjective.
2.
Predicative adjectives are linked via a copula or other linking mechanism to the noun or pronoun they modify; for example, happy is a predicate adjective in "they are happy" and in "that made me happy." (See also: Predicative expression, Subject complement.)
3.
Absolute adjectives have meanings that are implicitly unable to be used comparatively or superlatively; for example, dead is an absolute adjective, as the words deader or deadest are not normally used to describe states of death.
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4.
Nominal adjectives act almost as nouns. One way this can happen is if a noun is elided and an attributive adjective is left behind. In the sentence, "I read two books to them; he preferred the sad book, but she preferred the happy", happy is a nominal adjective, short for "happy one" or "happy book". Another way this can happen is in phrases like "out with the old, in with the new", where "the old" means, "that which is old" or "all that is old", and similarly with "the new". In such cases, the adjective functions either as a mass noun (as in the preceding example) or as a plural count noun, as in "The meek shall inherit the Earth", where "the meek" means "those who are meek" or "all who are meek".
Adjectival phrases
An adjective acts as the head of an adjectival phrase . In the simplest case, an adjectival phrase consists solely of the adjective; more complex adjectival phrases may contain one or more adverbs modifying the adjective (" very strong"), or one or more complements (such as "worth several dollars ", "full of toys ", or "eager to please "). In English, attributive adjectival phrases that include complements typically follow their subject ("an evildoer devoid of redeeming qualities ").
2.5.5 Other noun modifiers
In many languages, including English, it is possible for nouns to modify other nouns.
Unlike adjectives, nouns acting as modifiers (called attributive nouns or noun adjuncts ) usually are not predicative; a beautiful park is beautiful, but a car park is not "car". In plain English, the modifier often indicates origin (" Virginia reel"), purpose (" work clothes"), or semantic patient
(" man eater"), however, it may generally indicate almost any semantic relationship. It is also common for adjectives to be derived from nouns, as in boyish , birdlike , behavioral , famous , manly , angelic , and so on.
Many languages have special verbal forms called participles that can act as noun modifiers. In many languages, including English, participles are historically adjectives, and have retained most of their original function as such. English examples of this include relieved (the past participle of the verb relieve , used as an adjective in sentences such as "I am so relieved to see you"), spoken (as in "the spoken word"), and going (the present participle of the verb go , used as an adjective in sentences such as "Ten dollars per hour is the going rate").
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Other constructs that often modify nouns include prepositional phrases (as in "a rebel without a cause "), relative clauses (as in "the man who wasn't there "), other adjective clauses (as in "the bookstore where he worked "), and infinitive phrases (as in "a cake to die for ").
In relation, many nouns take complements such as content clauses (as in "the idea that I would do that "); these are not commonly considered modifiers, however.
Adjective order
In many languages, attributive adjectives usually occur in a specific order. In general, the adjective order in English is:
1.
Determiners — articles, adverbs, and other limiters.
2.
Observation — postdeterminers and limiter adjectives (e.g., a real hero, a perfect idiot) and adjectives subject to subjective measure (e.g., beautiful, interesting), or objects with a value (e.g., best, cheapest, costly)
3.
Size and Shape — adjectives subject to objective measure (e.g., wealthy, large, round), and physical properties such as speed.
4.
Age — adjectives denoting age (e.g., young, old, new, ancient, six-year-old).
5.
Color — adjectives denoting color (e.g., red, black, pale).
6.
Origin — denominal adjectives denoting source of noun (e.g., French, American,
Canadian).
7.
Material — denominal adjectives denoting what something is made of (e.g., woolen, metallic, wooden).
8.
Qualifier — final limiter, often regarded as part of the noun (e.g., rocking chair, hunting cabin, passenger car, book cover).
So, in English, adjectives pertaining to size precede adjectives pertaining to age ("little old", not "old little"), which in turn generally precede adjectives pertaining to color ("old white", not "white old"). So, we would say "One (quantity) nice (opinion) little (size) round (shape) old
(age) white (color) brick (material) house."
This order may be more rigid in some languages than others; in some, like Spanish, it may only be a default ( unmarked ) word order, with other orders being permissible.
Due partially to borrowings from French, English has some adjectives that follow the noun as post-modifiers, called postpositive adjectives, such as time immemorial and attorney general .
Adjectives may even change meaning depending on whether they precede or follow, as in
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proper : They live in a proper town (a real town, not a village) vs. They live in the town proper (in the town itself, not in the suburbs). All adjectives can follow nouns in certain constructions, such as tell me something new .
2.5.6 Comparison of adjectives
In many languages, some adjectives are comparable . For example, a person may be
"polite", but another person may be "more polite", and a third person may be the "most polite" of the three. The word "more" here modifies the adjective "polite" to indicate a comparison is being made, and "most" modifies the adjective to indicate an absolute comparison (a superlative ).
Among languages that allow adjectives to be compared, different means are used to indicate the comparison. Many languages do not distinguish comparative from superlative forms.
In English, there are three different means to indicate comparison: most simple adjectives take the suffixes "-er" and "-est", as
"big", "bigger", "biggest"; a very few adjectives are irregular :
"good", "better", "best",
"bad", "worse", "worst",
"old", "elder", "eldest" (in certain contexts only; the adjective is usually regular)
"far", "farther/further", "farthest/furthest"
"many", "more", "most" (usually regarded as an adverb or determiner)
"little", "less", "least";
All others are compared by means of the words "more" and "most". There is no simple rule to decide which means is correct for any given adjective, however. The general tendency is for simpler adjectives, and those from Anglo-Saxon to take the suffixes, while longer adjectives and those from French, Latin, Greek do not—but sometimes sound of the word is the deciding factor.
Many adjectives do not naturally lend themselves to comparison. For example, some
English speakers would argue that it does not make sense to say that one thing is "more ultimate" than another, or that something is "most ultimate", since the word "ultimate" is already absolute in its semantics. Such adjectives are called non-comparable . Nevertheless, native speakers will frequently play with the raised forms of adjectives of this sort. Although "pregnant" is logically non-comparable (either one is pregnant or not), it is not uncommon to hear a sentence like "She
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looks more and more pregnant each day", where a transference has taken place: grammatically the adjective is comparative but in fact it is the appearance that is being compared. Likewise
"extinct" and "equal" appear to be non-comparable, but one might say that a language about which nothing is known is "more extinct" than a well-documented language with surviving literature but no speakers, while George Orwell wrote "All animals are equal, but some are more equal than others". These cases may be viewed as implying that the base form of the adjective is not as absolute in its semantics as is usually thought.
Comparative and superlative forms are also occasionally used for other purposes than comparison. In English comparatives can be used to suggest that a statement is only tentative or tendential: one might say "John is more the shy-and-retiring type," where the comparative
"more" is not really comparing him with other people or with other impressions of him, but rather, could be substituting for "on the whole". In Italian, superlatives are frequently used to put strong emphasis on an adjective: Bellissimo means "most beautiful", but is in fact more commonly heard in the sense "extremely beautiful".
Restrictiveness
Attributive adjectives, and other noun modifiers, may be used either restrictively (helping to identify the noun's referent, hence "restricting" its reference) or non-restrictively (helping to describe an already-identified noun). For example:
"He was a lazy sort, who would avoid a difficult task and fill his working hours with easy ones."
"difficult" is restrictive - it tells us which tasks he avoids, distinguishing these from the easy ones: "Only those tasks that are difficult".
"She had the job of sorting out the mess left by her predecessor, and she performed this difficult task with great acumen."
"difficult" is non-restrictive - we already know which task it was, but the adjective describes it more fully: "The aforementioned task, which (by the way) is difficult"
In some languages, such as Spanish, restrictiveness is consistently marked; for example, in Spanish la tarea difícil
means "the difficult task" in the sense of "the task that is difficult"
(restrictive), whereas la difícil tarea means "the difficult task" in the sense of "the task, which is difficult" (non-restrictive). In English, restrictiveness is not marked on adjectives, but is marked on relative clauses (the difference between "the man who recognized me was there" and "the man, who recognized me , was there" being one of restrictiveness).
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Agreement
In some languages, adjectives alter their form to reflect the gender, case and number of the noun that they describe. This is called agreement or concord. Usually it takes the form of inflections at the end of the word, as in Latin: puella bona (good girl, feminine) puellam bonam (good girl, feminine accusative/object case) puer bonus (good boy, masculine) pueri boni (good boys, masculine plural)
In the Celtic languages, however, initial consonant lenition marks the adjective with a feminine noun, as in Irish: buachaill maith girseach mhaith
(good boy, masculine)
(good girl, feminine)
Often a distinction is made here between attributive and predicative usage. Whereas English is an example of a language in which adjectives never agree and French of a language in which they always agree, in German they agree only when used attributively, and in Hungarian only when used predicatively.
The good (Ø) boys .
Les bons garçons .
Die braven Jungen .
A jó (Ø) fiúk.
The boys are good (Ø).
Les garçons sont bons .
Die Jungen sind brav (Ø).
A fiúk jók.
A verb , from the Latin verbum meaning word , is a word (part of speech) that in syntax conveys an action ( bring , read , walk , run , learn ), an occurrence ( happen , become ), or a state of being ( be , exist , stand ). In the usual description of English, the basic form, with or without the particle to , is the infinitive. In many languages, verbs are inflected (modified in form) to encode tense, aspect, mood, and voice. A verb may also agree with the person, gender, and/or number of some of its arguments, such as its subject, or object. Verbs have tenses: present, to indicate that
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an action is being carried out; past, to indicate that an action has been done; future, to indicate that an action will be done.
Examples
 I washed the car yesterday.
 The dog ate my homework.
 John studies English and French.
 Lucy enjoys listening to music.
Verbs are the most important component of any sentence. These words talk about the action or the state of any noun or subject. This means that verbs show what the subject is doing or what is the state or situation of the subject.
For example:
He ran to the store. - Here the verb ran describes the action of the subject ‘he’
She is a creative person. - Here there is no action being done. Instead the auxiliary verb ‘is’ shows the state of the subject ‘she’ as being ‘creative’.
Agreement
In languages where the verb is inflected, it often agrees with its primary argument (the subject) in person, number, and/or gender. With the exception of the verb to be , English shows distinctive agreement only in the third person singular, present tense form of verbs, which are marked by adding "-s" ( walks ) or "-es" ( fishes ). The rest of the persons are not distinguished in the verb ( I walk , you walk , they walk , etc.).
Latin and the Romance languages inflect verbs for tense–aspect–mood and they agree in person and number (but not in gender, as for example in Polish) with the subject. Japanese, like many languages with SOV word order, inflects verbs for tense/mood/aspect as well as other categories such as negation, but shows absolutely no agreement with the subject - it is a strictly dependentmarking language. On the other hand, Basque, Georgian, and some other languages, have polypersonal agreement : the verb agrees with the subject, the direct object, and even the secondary object if present, a greater degree of head-marking than is found in most European languages.
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2.6.1 Verb types
Verbs vary by type, and each type is determined by the kinds of words that follow it and the relationship those words have with the verb itself. There are six types: intransitive, transitive, infinitives, to-be verbs, and two-place transitive (Vg- verb give), and two-place transitive (Vc- verb consider).
Action Verbs
These verbs talk about what the subject is doing in the sentence. Action Verbs are one of the most easily identifiable types of verbs. To recognize them, you simply have to look for the word in the sentence that answers the question ‘ What is the subject doing?
’ e.g. -
Rose is painting the kitchen walls.
The subject here is Rose, and what is Rose doing? Rose is painting . Hence painting is our action verb.
My dog is sleeping on the sofa.
The subject here is dog, and what is the dog doing? The dog is sleeping . So sleeping is our action verb.
There are two types of Action Verbs which describe the Verb and the Subject doing the action and the Object on which the action is done, they are -
Transitive Verbs -
These Action Verbs have a definite object on which, or for which the action is being performed.
That means that the action has a definite recipient or object. To identify them you can ask the question what is the/did the subject -verb-?
Rose is painting the kitchen walls.
Here the verb is painting and the subject is Rose.
If we form the question - what is Rose painting?
The answer is The kitchen walls .
Thus, we see that there was a specific object on which the action of painting was being done.
Hannah gave him a big hug.
Here we see that the action ‘gave’ is being performed by the subject Hannah. So the question is what did Hannah give? And the answer is - A big hug .
Here, we also have a indirect object as ‘him’. This indirect object would be the answer to the question-
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Who did the subject (Hannah) verb - (give) the object (hug) to?
Intransitive Verbs -
These verbs also show an action but here there is no specific object on which the action is being done. To recognize these verbs, we ask the question what is the/did the subject -verb- ? If there is no answer present, then the verb in the sentence is an Intransitive Verb.
Rose is painting right now.
Here, if we ask the question what is Rose painting? There is no answer which means that in this sentence painting is an Intransitive Verb.
It is telling us about the action of the subject but there is no specific object for the action.
Hannah sneezed repeatedly.
Here, the verb is sneezed . If we ask the question what did Hannah sneeze? There is no answer present for it making sneezed a intransitive verb.
Dynamic and Stative Verbs
This category of verbs deals with the verb words themselves; and whether they indicate an action or a state of the subject. This category is not concerned with the object in particular.
Dynamic Verbs
These verbs denote an actual action or expression or process done by the subject. They mean an action which can be seen or physically felt or the result of which is seen or physically felt by the object or an indirect object.
She buys new clothes every week.
Here the verb is buys which is an action done by the subject ‘she’, hence it is a dynamic verb.
He is swimming at the beach.
Here again we have the definite action swimming done by the subject ‘he’, making ‘swimming’ a dynamic verb in this sentence.
Stative Verbs
These verbs refer to the state of the subject or the situation of the subject. Stative Verbs tell us about the state of mind of the subject, or the relation between the subject and the object.
She prefers strawberry jam.
Here the Stative Verb is
‘prefers’ which shows the thinking of the subject ‘She’ towards the object, which is ‘jam’.
The cupboard requires a new coat of paint.
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Here the subject is ‘cupboard’ and the stative verb is ‘requires’ which is telling about the relation between the subject ‘cupboard’ and the object ‘paint’.
Linking Verbs
These verbs are unlike other verbs as they do not tell anything about a subject themselves, instead Linking Verbs connect the subject to a noun or adjective that helps in describing or providing additional information about the subject. Those nouns or adjectives are called the subject complements.
Lisa is fussy about food.
Here we see the subject is Lisa and the linking verb is
‘is’
which is connecting Lisa to the subject complement ‘fussy about food’ which is giving additional information about Lisa’s preferences.
They are stubborn children.
Here the linking verb is
‘are’ which is combining the subject They to the subject complement of
‘stubborn’ which is an adjective.
The best to recognize linking words in a sentence is to see whether the verb can be replaced by
‘is, am or are’.
If the sentence still sounds logical you know you have a linking verb.
The students felt relieved. - The students are relieved.
Hence
‘felt’ was a linking verb and not an action verb. As
‘felt’ here is simply connecting the subject to the adjective.
Every student felt the relief. - Every student is/am/are the relief.
Hence in this sentence
‘felt ’ is action verb as it is the action of ‘feeling an emotion.’
Using Verbs in Sentences -
To use verbs correctly in sentences you need to learn more about the construction and use of the various verbs. And how they change form according to tenses and use in a sentence. For correct application verbs in written text you will need to know about -
Regular and Irregular Verbs - These are the two different ways in which verbs change to form different tenses. Whether to simply add ‘-ed’ at the end of a verb or does it take a different form altogether.
Finite and Non-Finite Verbs - These are verbs which can be either the main verb of a sentence or just one that is used as an adjective or noun as well.
Modal Verbs - These verbs tell us whether something is probable or about the skills of a noun etc. There are 10 modal verbs in total and each have an important part in sentence formation.
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2.6.2 To be verbs
The verb be is manifested in eight forms: be , is , am , are , was , were , been , and being .
These verbs precede nouns or adjectives in a sentence, which become predicate nouns and predicate adjectives similar to those that function with a linking verb. They can also be followed by an adverb of place, which is sometimes referred to as a predicate adverb. For example: "Her daughter was a writing tutor." "The singers were very nervous." "My house is down the street."
There are different types and classifications of Verbs; some of the most important ones are listed below:
List of Verbs, Verb Examples
Accept Catch Expand Lie Select
Approve
Argue
Arrive
Ask
Assist
Attack
Bake
Bathe
Be
Beat
Achieve
Add
Admire
Admit
Adopt
Challenge Explain
Change
Cheat
Fear
Feel
Chew
Choose
Fight
Find
Advise
Agree
Allow
Clap
Clean
Collect
Fly
Forget
Forgive
Announce Compare Fry
Appreciate Complain Gather
Confess Get
Confuse Give
Construct Glow
Control
Copy
Count
Create
Greet
Grow
Guess
Harass
Cry Hate
Damage Hear
Dance Help
Like
Listen
Lose
Love
Make
Marry
Measure
Meet
Move
Murder
Obey
Offend
Offer
Open
Paint
Pay
Pick
Play
Pray
Print
Sell
Send
Sing
Snore
Stand
Stare
Start
Stink
Study
Sweep
Swim
Take
Talk
Teach
Tear
Tell
Thank
Travel
Type
Understand
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Become
Beg
Behave
Bet
Boast
Deliver Hit
Destroy Hope
Disagree Identify
Drag
Drive
Interrupt
Introduce
Pull
Punch
Punish
Purchase
Push
Use
Visit
Wait
Walk
Want
Boil
Borrow
Breathe
Drop
Earn
Eat
Irritate
Jump
Keep
Quit
Race
Read
Warn
Wed
Weep
Bring
Build
Burn
Bury
Buy
Employ
Encourage
Kick
Kiss
Enjoy Laugh
Establish Learn
Estimate Leave
Exercise Lend
Relax Wink
Remember Worry
Reply
Retire
Rub
See
Write
Yell
Call
2.6.3 Valency
The number of arguments that a verb takes is called its valency or valence . Verbs can be classified according to their valency:
 Avalent (valency = 0): the verb has neither a subject nor an object. Zero valency does not
 occur in English; in some languages such as Mandarin Chinese, weather verbs like snow(s) take no subject or object.
Intransitive (valency = 1, monovalent): the verb only has a subject. For example: "he runs", "it falls".


Transitive (valency = 2, divalent): the verb has a subject and a direct object. For example: "she eats fish", "we hunt nothing".
Ditransitive (valency = 3, trivalent): the verb has a subject, a direct object, and an indirect object. For example: "He gives her a flower" or "She gave the watch to John".
A few English verbs, particularly those concerned with financial transactions, take four arguments, as in "Pat
1
sold Chris
2
a lawnmower
3
for $20
4
" or "Chris
1
paid Pat
2
$20
3
for a lawnmower
4
". Weather verbs often appear to be impersonal (subjectless, or avalent) in nullsubject languages like Spanish, where the verb llueve means "It rains". In English, French and
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German, they require a dummy pronoun, and therefore formally have a valency of 1. However, as verbs in Spanish incorporate the subject as a TAM suffix, Spanish is not actually a nullsubject language, unlike Mandarin (see above). Such verbs in Spanish also have a valency of 1.
Intransitive and transitive verbs are the most common, but the impersonal and objective verbs are somewhat different from the norm. In the objective the verb takes an object but no subject; the nonreferent subject in some uses may be marked in the verb by an incorporated dummy pronoun similar to that used with the English weather verbs. Impersonal verbs in null subject languages take neither subject nor object, as is true of other verbs, but again the verb may show incorporated dummy pronouns despite the lack of subject and object phrases.
Verbs are often flexible with regard to valency. In non-valency marking languages such as English, a transitive verb can often drop its object and become intransitive; or an intransitive verb can take an object and become transitive. For example, in English the verb move has no grammatical object in he moves (though in this case, the subject itself may be an implied object, also expressible explicitly as in he moves himself ); but in he moves the car , the subject and object are distinct and the verb has a different valency. Some verbs in English, however, have historically derived forms that show change of valency in some causative verbs, such as fall-fellfallen : fell-felled-felled ; rise-rose-risen : raise-raised-raised ; cost-cost-cost : cost-costed-costed .
In valency marking languages, valency change is shown by inflecting the verb in order to change the valency. In Kalaw Lagaw Ya of Australia, for example, verbs distinguish valency by argument agreement suffixes and TAM endings:
Nui mangema "He arrived earlier today" ( mangema today past singular subject active intransitive perfective)
Palai mangemanu "They [dual] arrived earlier today"
Thana mangemainu "They [plural] arrived earlier today" verb structure : manga-i-[number]-TAM "arrive+active+singular/dual/plural+TAM"
Nuidh wapi manganu "He took the fish [to that place] earlier today" ( manganu today past singular object attainative transitive perfective)
Nuidh wapi mangamanu "He took the two fish [to that place] earlier today"
Nuidh wapil mangamainu "He took the [three or more] fish [to that place] earlier today" verb structure : manga-Ø-[number]-TAM "arrive+attainative+singular/dual/plural+TAM"
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The verb stem manga take/come/arrive at the destination takes the active suffix -i (> mangai) in the intransitive form, and as a transitive verb the stem is not suffixed. The TAM ending -nu is the general today past attainative perfective, found with all numbers in the perfective except the singular active, where -ma is found.
Tense, aspect, and modality
A single-word verb in Spanish contains information about time (past, present, future), person and number. The process of grammatically modifying a verb to express this information is called conjugation. Main articles: Grammatical tense, Aspect (linguistics), Linguistic modality and Tense–aspect–mood. Depending on the language, verbs may express grammatical tense , aspect , or modality . Grammatical tense is the use of auxiliary verbs or inflections to convey whether the action or state is before, simultaneous with, or after some reference point.
The reference point could be the time of utterance, in which case the verb expresses absolute tense, or it could be a past, present, or future time of reference previously established in the sentence, in which case the verb expresses relative tense.
Aspect expresses how the action or state occurs through time. Important examples include:
 perfective aspect, in which the action is viewed in its entirety through completion
(as in "I saw the car")
 imperfective aspect, in which the action is viewed as ongoing; in some languages a verb could express imperfective aspect more narrowly as:
 habitual aspect, in which the action occurs repeatedly (as in "I used to go there every day"), or
 continuous aspect, in which the action occurs without pause; continuous aspect

 can be further subdivided into stative aspect, in which the situation is a fixed, unevolving state (as in "I know
French"), and progressive aspect, in which the situation continuously evolves (as in "I am
 running") perfect, which combines elements of both aspect and tense, and in which both a prior event and the state resulting from it are expressed (as in "I have studied well")
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Aspect can either be lexical, in which case the aspect is embedded in the verb's meaning (as in
"the sun shines", where "shines" is lexically stative); or it can be grammatically expressed, as in
"I am running". Modality expresses the speaker's attitude toward the action or state given by the verb, especially with regard to degree of necessity, obligation, or permission ("You must go",
"You should go", "You may go"), determination or willingness ("I will do this no matter what"), degree of probability ("It must be raining by now", "It may be raining", "It might be raining"), or ability ("I can speak French"). All languages can express modality with adverbs, but some also use verbal forms as in the given examples. If the verbal expression of modality involves the use of an auxiliary verb, that auxiliary is called a modal verb. If the verbal expression of modality involves inflection, we have the special case of mood; moods include the indicative (as in "I am there"), the subjunctive (as in "I wish I were there"), and the imperative ("Be there!").
Voice
The voice of a verb expresses whether the subject of the verb is performing the action of the verb or whether the action is being performed on the subject. The two most common voices are the active voice (as in "I saw the car") and the passive voice (as in "The car was seen by me" or simply "The car was seen").
Most languages have a number of verbal nouns that describe the action of the verb.
In the Indo-European languages, verbal adjectives are generally called participles. English has an active participle, also called a present participle; and a passive participle, also called a past participle. The active participle of break is breaking , and the passive participle is broken . Other languages have attributive verb forms with tense and aspect. This is especially common among verb-final languages, where attributive verb phrases act as relative clauses.
2.7 The Preposition
Recognize a preposition when you see one.
Prepositions are the words that indicate location. Usually, prepositions show this location in the physical world. Check out the three examples below:
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The puppy is on the floor. The puppy is beside the phone.
The puppy is in the trash can.
On, in, and beside are all prepositions. They are showing where the puppy is. Prepositions can also show location in time . Read the next four examples:
1.
At midnight, Jill craved mashed potatoes with grape jelly.
2.
In the spring, I always vow to plant tomatoes but end up buying them at the supermarket.
3.
During the marathon, Iggy's legs complained with sharp pains shooting up his thighs.
4.
At midnight, in the spring, and during the marathon all show location in time.
Because there are so many possible locations, there are quite a few prepositions. Below is the complete list. about above concerning despite according to down across after against along during except except for excepting onto on top of out out of outside over past along with among apart from around for from in regarding round since in addition to through
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as as for in back of in case of at in front of because of in place of before behind below beneath beside between inside in spite of instead of into like near beyond but* next of by off by means of on throughout till to toward under underneath unlike until up upon up to with within without
* But is very seldom a preposition. When it is used as a preposition, but means the same as except—Everyone ate frog legs but Jamie. But usually functions as a coordinating conjunction.
Understand how to form a prepositional phrase.
Prepositions generally introduce prepositional phrases. Prepositional phrases look like this: preposition + optional modifiers + noun, pronoun, or gerund
Here are some examples:
At school
At = preposition; school = noun.
According to us
According to = preposition; us = pronoun.
By chewing
By = preposition; chewing = gerund.
Under the stove
Under = preposition; the = modifier; stove = noun.
In the crumb-filled, rumpled sheets
In = preposition; the, crumb-filled, rumpled = modifiers; sheets = noun.
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Realize that some prepositions also function as subordinate conjunctions.
Some prepositions also function as subordinate conjunctions. These prepositions are after, as, before, since, and until. A subordinate conjunction will have both a subject and a verb following it, forming a subordinate clause.
Look at these examples:
After Sam and Esmerelda kissed goodnight
After = subordinate conjunction; Sam, Esmerelda = subjects; kissed = verb.
As Jerome buckled on the parachute
As = subordinate conjunction; Jerome = subject; buckled = verb.
Before I eat these frog legs
Before = subordinate conjunction; I = subject; eat = verb.
Since we have enjoyed the squid eyeball stew
Since = subordinate conjunction; we = subject; have enjoyed = verb.
Until your hiccups stop
Until = subordinate conjunction; hiccups = subject; stop = verb.
If you find a noun [with or without modifiers] following one of these five prepositions, then all you have is a prepositional phrase. Look at these examples:
After the killer calculus test
After = preposition; the, killer, calculus = modifiers; test = noun.
As a good parent
As = preposition; a, good = modifiers; parent = noun.
Before dinner
Before = preposition; dinner = noun.
Since the breakup
Since = preposition; the = modifier; breakup = noun.
Until midnight
Until = preposition; midnight = noun.
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MODULE 3: HUMAN RELATION
3.1 Human Relations: Definition, Importance and Examples
Relationships between employees in the workplace are important to reducing employee turnover, increasing productivity and fostering creativity.
Relationships between employees and management are of substantial value in any workplace.
Human relations is the process of training employees, addressing their needs, fostering a workplace culture and resolving conflicts between different employees or between employees and management. Understanding some of the the ways that human relations can impact the costs, competitiveness and long-term economic sustainability of a business helps to underscore their importance.
Human relations in the workplace are a major part of what makes a business work.
Employees must frequently work together on projects, communicate ideas and provide motivation to get things done. Without a stable and inviting workplace culture, difficult challenges can arise both in the logistics of managing employees and in the bottom line.
Businesses with engaging workplaces and a well-trained workforce are more likely to retain and attract qualified employees, foster loyalty with customers and more quickly adapt to meet the needs of a changing marketplace.
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3.1.1 Improving Retention
The quality of workplace relations is critical to employee retention. Employee retention may seem trivial -- especially in a workplace that is used to a high turnover -- but managers must remember that turnover is financially very costly. Every new employee requires a substantial investment of time and energy in their recruitment and training. In addition, severing ties with old employees can sometimes be challenging, especially if the circumstances are not particularly amicable. Making sure quality employees remain interested and engaged in the business requires patience, compassion and flexibility, but can actually make the business more financially sound.
Motivation and Productivity
Workplace relationships provide a source of employee motivation, which is important to maintaining productivity. Employees who are interested in their work and in the well-being of other employees tend to be more productive than those who are not. This productivity pays obvious financial dividends to the company, as it can get more done in less time with fewer costs. Building relationships, by both recognizing an employee's value to the company and a concern for their needs, often goes a long way.
Fostering Creativity
The modern business environment often rewards businesses that are able to quickly develop products that meet changing consumer needs. In some industries -- such as technology, for example -- employees' ability to come up with effective new ideas is often the difference between the entire company's success and failure. According to Sallyport Magazine, research shows that creativity is based to large degree in social interaction. Employees' creativity is often dependent on their ability to communicate with other employees and share ideas. Without quality workplace relationships, employees are less likely to be able to develop and share the solutions that a business needs to survive.
Identifying Your Dominant Values
In this questionnaire you are to ask yourself: "What values are important to ME as guiding principles in MY life, and what values are less important to me?" There are two lists of values in this self-assessment. These values come from different cultures. In the parentheses following each value is an explanation that may help you to understand its meaning.
Your task is to rate how important each value is for you as a guiding principle in your life .
Use the rating scale below:
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 0 means the value is not at all important, it is not relevant as a guiding principle for you.
 3 means the value is important.
 6 means the value is very important.
The higher the number (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6), the more important the value is as a guiding principle in YOUR life.


-1 is for rating any values opposed to the principles that guide you.
7 is for rating a value of supreme importance as a guiding principle in your life; ordinarily there are no more than two such values .
For each value, select the number (-1,0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7) that indicates the importance of that value for you, personally. Try to distinguish as much as possible between the values by using all the numbers. You will, of course, need to use numbers more than once.
Before you begin, read the values in List I, choose the one that is most important to you and rate its importance. Next, choose the value that is most opposed to your values and rate it -1. If there is no such value, choose the value least important to you and rate it 0 or 1, according to its importance. Then rate the rest of the values in List I.
Values List I
Indicate which of the following values you cherish in your life
EQUALITY (equal opportunity for all)
INNER HARMONY (at peace with myself)
SOCIAL POWER (control over others, dominance)
PLEASURE (gratification of desires)
FREEDOM (freedom of action and thought)
A SPIRITUAL LIFE (emphasis on spiritual not material matters)
SENSE OF BELONGING (feeling that others care about me)
SOCIAL ORDER (stability of society)
AN EXCITING LIFE (stimulating experiences)
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MEANING IN LIFE (a purpose in life)
POLITENESS (courtesy, good manners)
WEALTH (material possessions, money)
NATIONAL SECURITY (protection of my nation from enemies)
SELF RESPECT (belief in one's own worth)
RECIPROCATION OF FAVORS (avoidance of indebtedness)
CREATIVITY (uniqueness, imagination)
A WORLD AT PEACE (free of war and conflict)
RESPECT FOR TRADITION (preservation of time-honored customs)
MATURE LOVE (deep emotional & spiritual intimacy)
SELF-DISCIPLINE (self-restraint, resistance to temptation)
PRIVACY (the right to have a private sphere)
FAMILY SECURITY (safety for loved ones)
SOCIAL RECOGNITION (respect, approval by others)
UNITY WITH NATURE (fitting into nature)
A VARIED LIFE (filled with challenge, novelty and change)
WISDOM (a mature understanding of life)
AUTHORITY (the right to lead or command)
TRUE FRIENDSHIP (close, supportive friends)
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A WORLD OF BEAUTY (beauty of nature and the arts)
SOCIAL JUSTICE (correcting injustice, care for the weak)
Values List II
Now rate how important each of the following values is for you as a guiding principle in
YOUR life . These values are phrased as ways of acting that may be more or less important for you. Once again, try to distinguish as much as possible between the values by using all the numbers.Before you begin, read the values in List II, choose the one that is most important to you and rate its importance. Next, choose the value that is most opposed to your values, or--if there is no such value--choose the value least important to you, and rate it -1, 0, or 1, according to its importance. Then rate the rest of the values.
INDEPENDENT (self-reliant, self-sufficient)
MODERATE (avoiding extremes of feeling & action)
LOYAL (faithful to my friends, group)
AMBITIOUS (hard-working, aspiring)
BROADMINDED (tolerant of different ideas and beliefs)
HUMBLE (modest, self-effacing)
DARING (seeking adventure, risk)
PROTECTING THE ENVIRONMENT (preserving nature)
INFLUENTIAL (having an impact on people and events)
HONORING OF PARENTS AND ELDERS (showing respect)
CHOOSING OWN GOALS (selecting own purposes)
HEALTHY (not being sick physically or mentally)
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CAPABLE (competent, effective, efficient)
ACCEPTING MY PORTION IN LIFE (submitting to life's circumstances)
HONEST (genuine, sincere)
PRESERVING MY PUBLIC IMAGE (protecting my "face")
OBEDIENT (dutiful, meeting obligations)
INTELLIGENT (logical, thinking)
HELPFUL (working for the welfare of others)
ENJOYING LIFE (enjoying food, sex, leisure, etc.)
DEVOUT (holding to religious faith & belief)
RESPONSIBLE (dependable, reliable)
CURIOUS (interested in everything, exploring)
FORGIVING (willing to pardon others)
SUCCESSFUL (achieving goals)
CLEAN (neat, tidy)
SELF-INDULGENT (doing pleasant things)
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Definitions
1. Important and lasting beliefs or ideals shared by the members of a culture about what is good or bad and desirable or undesirable. Values have major influence on a person's
2. behavior and attitude and serve as broad guidelines in all situations. Some common business values are fairness, innovation and community involvement.
The monetary worth of something in areas such as accounting, economics, marketing or mathematics. See also value.
Clarifying Your Work Values Leads to Job Satisfaction
What Are Work Values
Throughout your life you acquired a set of values—beliefs and ideas that are important to you. For example you may believe that one should always be honest or that one must always be a loyal friend. You live your life according to this set of values. In order to have a happy, successful and fulfilling life, you must act upon your values, both in your personal life and at work. Taking your values into account when you choose a career could be the most important factor that determines whether you will or won't be satisfied with that aspect of your life.
Clarifying your work values, that subset of values that relate to your career, is essential. Your work values are both intrinsic, relating to the actual tasks involved in practicing a particular occupation, and extrinsic, relating to the by-products of an occupation. An intrinsic value might be helping others, while an example of an extrinsic value is earning a lot of money.
How to Identify Work Values
Career development professionals, including career counselors and career development facilitators, use work value inventories to measure how important various work values are to you. Generally, a work value inventory is simply a list of values that you are asked to rate. For example, the instructions may tell you to rate each value on a scale of one to 10, giving a one to those values that are most important to you and a 10 to those that are least important.
Alternatively, you may be asked to list a series of work values in order of importance.
The results of a work value inventory are used to identify appropriate career choices, by matching an individual's work values with characteristics of occupations. A work value
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inventory is best used in conjunction with other self assessment instruments that help identify one's personality, interests and skills.
Examples and Definitions of Work Values
Here are examples of items that could appear on a work value inventory, along with a definition of each one. When reading this list, think about how important each value is to you.
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
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Autonomy: receiving no or little supervision
Helping Others:
Prestige:
Job Security: a high probability that one will remain employed
Collaboration: working with others
Helping Society:
Recognition:
Compensation:
Achievement:
providing assistance to individuals or groups
having high standing
contributing to the betterment of the world
receiving attention for your work
receiving adequate pay
doing work that yields results
Utilizing Your Skills and Background: using your education and work experience to do

 your job
 Leadership: supervising/managing others
 Creativity: using your own ideas
 Variety: doing different activities
 Challenge: performing tasks that are difficult
 Leisure: having adequate time away from work
 Recognition: receiving credit for achievements
Artistic Expression:
Influence:
expressing one's artistic talents
having the ability to affect people's opinions and ideas
3.2.2 Value Conflict
Conflict is defined as a difference of opinion regarding ideas, wishes or desires. Conflict can arise between couples, work peers and political governments. Understanding the basic types of conflicts that may occur in your daily environment can help you avoid disagreements or learn the best way to deal with them.
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Relationships
Conflicts with friends or family members are often caused by miscommunication, disagreements on behavior or negative emotions, according to Jim Melamed, founder of the
Oregon Mediation Center and former chair of the Oregon Dispute Resolution Commission.
Accepting, according to Melamed, is not the same as agreeing to such disputes, but it may help prevent them from becoming disruptive and destructive.
Interests
Conflicts of interest are described as a disagreement or type of competition where the needs of one are ignored over the needs of the other. Such conflicts of interest may be defined, according to Melamed, as those involving psychological needs over resources such as time or money or those in which there are disagreements over the way problems are addressed.
Values
Conflicts in values are often seen between individuals raised in different cultural or religious backgrounds who have differing opinions over right and wrong, suggests Melamed.
Conflicts often arise when one person tries to enforce his own set of values on another.
Leadership
Leadership and managerial styles differ among individuals, which may cause conflict in the work environment. Various factors determine leadership styles and may include personality, expectations and whether or not that leader encourages feedback and opinions of others or is more autocratic or directive in style, according to Leadership-and-Motivation-Training.com.
Personality
Clashing personalities may create conflicts at school, home and work, according to
Leadership-and-Motivation-Training.com. Perception and emotions play a large role in whether or not you may like or dislike someone's personality. If you think your boss is rude and inconsiderate, you're less likely to want to be part of his team, which often leads to conflicts of interest and leadership.
Style
A person's method of completing tasks or goals may lead to conflict in any scenario, according to Leadership-and-Motivation-Training.com. You can be laid-back, while your partner is eager to get something done, which can create conflict. Or, your team member may be taskoriented, while you're more creative.
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Ethics
Ethical conflict can be defined as external factors influencing a decision, something often seen in the health care industry, according to Entrepreneur.com. For example, breaching confidentiality is considered unethical in the medical field. A nurse who knows something private about a sick patient may feel an ethical conflict about revealing that knowledge to someone else, even when that information may be used to aid or save that patient.
3.4 Conflict Management, Settlement, and Resolution
Just as conflict scholars often distinguish between short-term conflicts (or disputes) and long term conflicts, many also distinguish between "dispute settlement," "conflict management," and "conflict resolution." Disputes are usually settled permanently by working out a mutuallysatisfactory agreement through negotiation or mediation, or by adjudication in which an expert (a judge, a jury, or an arbitrator) decides that one side was right, and the other was wrong. In both situations, the dispute is settled--that is, it is ended.
When long-term conflicts are ended, scholars say they are "resolved." By this they mean that a relatively stable solution has been found by identifying and dealing with the underlying sources of the conflict. This is more difficult to do than simple "dispute settlement," because resolution means going beyond negotiating interests to meeting all sides' basic needs, and finding a way to respect their underlying values and identity. This often requires making significant socioeconomic or political changes that restructure society in a more just or inclusive way.
"Conflict management" involves the control, but not resolution, of a long-term or deep-rooted conflict. This is the approach of choice when complete resolution seems to be impossible. In this case, a conflict can be managed to make it more constructive and less destructive--thus making the results of the ongoing conflict more beneficial and less damaging to all sides.
3.4.1 Conflict Management Techniques
Conflict situations are an important aspect of the workplace. A conflict is a situation when the interests, needs, goals or values of involved parties interfere with one another. A conflict is a common phenomenon in the workplace. Different stakeholders may have different priorities; conflicts may involve team members, departments, projects, organization and client, boss and subordinate, organization needs vs. personal needs. Often, a conflict is a result of perception. Is conflict a bad thing? Not necessarily. Often, a conflict presents opportunities for
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improvement. Therefore, it is important to understand (and apply) various conflict resolution techniques.
Forcing
Also known as competing . An individual firmly pursues his or her own concerns despite the resistance of the other person. This may involve pushing one viewpoint at the expense of another or maintaining firm resistance to another person’s actions.
Examples of when forcing may be appropriate
 In certain situations when all other, less forceful methods, don’t work or are ineffective
 When you need to stand up for your own rights, resist aggression and pressure
 When a quick resolution is required and using force is justified (e.g. in a life-threatening situation, to stop an aggression)
 As a last resort to resolve a long-lasting conflict
Possible advantages of forcing :
 May provide a quick resolution to a conflict
 Increases self-esteem and draws respect when firm resistance or actions were a response to an aggression or hostility
Some caveats of forcing :
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
May negatively affect your relationship with the opponent in the long run
May cause the opponent to react in the same way, even if the opponent did not intend to

 be forceful originally
Cannot take advantage of the strong sides of the other side’s position
Taking this approach may require a lot of energy and be exhausting to some individuals
Win-Win (Collaborating)
Also known as problem confronting or problem solving . Collaboration involves an attempt to work with the other person to find a win-win solution to the problem in hand - the one that most satisfies the concerns of both parties. The win-win approach sees conflict resolution as an opportunity to come to a mutually beneficial result. It includes identifying the underlying concerns of the opponents and finding an alternative which meets each party's concerns.
Examples of when collaborating may be appropriate:
 When consensus and commitment of other parties is important
 In a collaborative environment
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
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When it is required to address the interests of multiple stakeholders
When a high level of trust is present
When a long-term relationship is important
When you need to work through hard feelings, animosity, etc
When you don't want to have full responsibility
Possible advantages of collaborating :
 Leads to solving the actual problem
 Leads to a win-win outcome
 Reinforces mutual trust and respect
 Builds a foundation for effective collaboration in the future
 Shared responsibility of the outcome
 You earn the reputation of a good negotiator
 For parties involved, the outcome of the conflict resolution is less stressful (however, the process of finding and establishing a win-win solution may be very involed – see the caveats below)
Some caveats of collaborating :
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Requires a commitment from all parties to look for a mutually acceptable solution
May require more effort and more time than some other methods. A win-win solution
 may not be evident
For the same reason, collaborating may not be practical when timing is crucial and a quick solution or fast response is required
 Once one or more parties lose their trust in an opponent, the relationship falls back to other methods of conflict resolution. Therefore, all involved parties must continue collaborative efforts to maintain a collaborative relationship
Compromising
Compromising looks for an expedient and mutually acceptable solution which partially satisfies both parties.
Examples of when compromise may be appropriate:
 When the goals are moderately important and not worth the use of more assertive or more involving approaches, such as forcing or collaborating
 To reach temporary settlement on complex issues
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
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To reach expedient solutions on important issues
As a first step when the involved parties do not know each other well or haven’t yet developed a high level of mutual trust
When collaboration or forcing do not work
Possible advantages of compromise :
 Faster issue resolution. Compromising may be more practical when time is a factor
 Can provide a temporary solution while still looking for a win-win solution
 Lowers the levels of tension and stress resulting from the conflict
Some caveats of using compromise :
 May result in a situation when both parties are not satisfied with the outcome (a lose-lose situation)
 Does not contribute to building trust in the long run
 May require close monitoring and control to ensure the agreements are met
Withdrawing
Also known as avoiding . This is when a person does not pursue her/his own concerns or those of the opponent. He/she does not address the conflict, sidesteps, postpones or simply withdraws.
Examples of when withdrawing may be appropriate:
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When the issue is trivial and not worth the effort
When more important issues are pressing, and you don't have time to deal with it
In situations where postponing the response is beneficial to you, for example - o When it is not the right time or place to confront the issue o When you need time to think and collect information before you act (e.g. if you
 are unprepared or taken by surprise)
When you see no chance of getting your concerns met or you would have to put forth unreasonable efforts
When you would have to deal with ostility 
 When you are unable to handle the conflict (e.g. if you are too emotionally involved or others can handle it better)
Possible advantages of withdrawing :
 When the opponent is forcing / attempts aggression, you may choose to withdraw and postpone your response until you are in a more favourable circumstance for you to push
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

 back
Withdrawing is a low stress approach when the conflict is short
Gives the ability/time to focus on more important or more urgent issues instead
Gives you time to better prepare and collect information before you act
Some caveats of withdrawing :
 May lead to weakening or losing your position; not acting may be interpreted as an agreement. Using withdrawing strategies without negatively affecting your own position requires certain skill and experience
 When multiple parties are involved, withdrawing may negatively affect your relationship with a party that expects your action
Smoothing
Also known as accommodating . Smoothing is accommodating the concerns of other people first of all, rather than one's own concerns.
Examples of when smoothing may be appropriate:
 When it is important to provide a temporary relief from the conflict or buy time until you
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
 are in a better position to respond/push back
When the issue is not as important to you as it is to the other person
When you accept that you are wrong
When you have no choice or when continued competition would be detrimental
Possible advantages of smoothing :
 In some cases smoothing will help to protect more important interests while giving up on
 some less important ones
Gives an opportunity to reassess the situation from a different angle
Some caveats of smoothing :
 There is a risk to be abused, i.e. the opponent may constantly try to take advantage of your tendency toward smoothing/accommodating. Therefore it is important to keep the right balance and this requires some skill.
 May negatively affect your confidence in your ability to respond to an aggressive opponent
 It makes it more difficult to transition to a win-win solution in the future
 Some of your supporters may not like your smoothing response and be turned off
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3.4.4 Ten Tips for Managing Conflict, Tension and Anger
To be a safe and predictable person for those around you at work and at home, it is essential that you are able to maintain your composure when you feel like your 'buttons' are being pushed. This strength will help you to achieve your goals in business as well as your goals for your personal relationships.
1. Share negative emotions only in person or on the phone.
E-mails, answering machine messages, and notes are too impersonal for the delicate nature of negative words. What feels like a bomb on paper may feel like a feather when delivered in person.
2. Pepper your responses with the phrase, "I understand".
This phrase will support your goals when the tension is high and you need to find common ground to form compromises or agreements with the other party.
3. Take notice when you feel threatened by what someone is saying to you.
Resist the temptation to defend yourself or to "shut down" the other person's communication. It will take this kind of discipline to become an open, trusting communicator.
4. Practice making requests of others when you are angry. It is often much more useful to make a request than to share your anger. For example, if the babysitter is driving you crazy by leaving dirty dishes in the sink, it is better to make a request of them than to let your anger leak out in other ways such as by becoming more distant.
5. Try repeating the exact words that someone is saying to you when they are in a lot of emotional pain or when you disagree with them completely.
This mirroring technique can keep both the speaker and the listener 'centered' in a difficult conversation, especially when the attitude of the person doing the mirroring is to gain understanding of a different point of view.
6. Take responsibility for your feelings to avoid blaming others.
Notice when 'blameshifting' begins to leak into your speech. "I feel angry when you are twenty minutes late and you don't call me" is much better than, "You make me so mad by being late."
7. Learn to listen to the two sides of the conflict that you are in as if you were the mediator or the counselor.
If you can listen and respond in this way you will bring peace and solutions to the conflict more quickly. For example, in response to an employee's raise request, you might say, "On the one hand I understand that you really need the raise, and on the other hand I represent the company, whose funds are very scarce at this time. Is there a way that I can work on your compensation package that does not involve cash?" Here, the mediator's point of view
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can look for the creative compromise that takes into account the limits and the needs of both parties.
8. Take a playful attitude towards developing the skill of emotional self-control in high conflict situations. You could view maintaining self-control in a tense, angry converstion as an athletic feat. You could also view developing this skill as similar to working out at the gym with weights - the more that you use your self-control muscle the bigger it will grow and the easier it will be to remain calm when tension is great.
9. Wait a few days to cool down emotionally when a situation makes you feel wild with intense feelings, such as rage. As time passes, you will be able to be more objective about the issues and to sort out the truth about the situation more clearly.
10. Make a decision to speak with decorum whenever you are angry or frustrated. If you give yourself permission to blow up, people will not feel safe around you. They will feel that you are not predictable and will carry 'shields' when they are near you. The fear and walls of others will not support your goals for success in relationships or at work.
3.5 Attitude
An attitude is an expression of favor or disfavor toward a person, place, thing, or event
(the attitude object ). Prominent psychologist Gordon Allport once described attitudes "the most distinctive and indispensable concept in contemporary social psychology.". Attitude can be formed from a person's past and present. Attitude is also measurable and changeable as well as influencing the person's emotion and behavior.
In lay language, attitude may refer to the distinct concept of mood, or be especially synonymous with teenage rebellion.
Definitions
An attitude can be defined as a positive or negative evaluation of people, objects, event, activities, ideas, or just about anything in your environment, but there is debate about precise definitions. Eagly and Chaiken, for example, define an attitude "a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor." Though it is sometimes common to define an attitude as affect toward an object, affect (i.e., discrete emotions or overall arousal) is generally understood to be distinct from attitude as a measure of favorability.
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This definition of attitude allows for one's evaluation of an attitude object to vary from extremely negative to extremely positive, but also admits that people can also be conflicted or ambivalent toward an object meaning that they might at different times express both positive and negative attitude toward the same object. This has led to some discussion of whether individual can hold multiple attitudes toward the same object.
Whether attitudes are explicit (i.e., deliberately formed) versus implicit (i.e., subconscious) has been a topic of considerable research. Research on implicit attitudes, which are generally unacknowledged or outside of awareness, uses sophisticated methods involving people's response times to stimuli to show that implicit attitudes exist (perhaps in tandem with explicit attitudes of the same object). Implicit and explicit attitudes seem to affect people's behavior, though in different ways. They tend not to be strongly associated with each other, although in some cases they are. The relationship between them is poorly understood.
On the other hand, the Iterative Reprocessing (IR) Model takes an integrated approach to understanding attitudes instead of distinguishing between implicit and explicit attitude.
According to the IR model (Cunningham & Zelazo, 2007; Cunningham, Zelazo, Packer, & Van
Bavel, 2007), attitudes are characterized as evaluation, which refers to process of unfolding an emergent property of multiple processes during a period of time. According to the theory, it is differences in information processing, not different attitudinal representations stored in discrete memory systems, that cause differences in evaluation (Van Bavel, Xiao, & Cunningham, 2012).
The IR model proposes a connectionist framework. In this frame work, attitudes are defined as stable unit weights, whereas evaluations refer to the current pattern of activation of the units
(Cunningham et al., 2007). Unit weights consist of valence and intensity (Van Bavel et al.,
2012). Depending on the level of valence and intensity, the extent to which evaluation is influenced by context, motivation, and goals will be different (Van Bavel et al. 2012). The IR model suggests the involvement of numerous interactive neural systems in processing information (Van Bavel et al., 2012). According to the model, information is processed in a form of hierarchy. Iterations will be added to move to the next evaluative processing (Van Bavel et al.,
2012). This model provides a greater understanding of how contextual information and motivational factors affect all stages of evaluative system including the prior states. In sum, instead of treating attitudes as two independent representations in memory, the model suggests
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that attitude refers to processing emergent properties in concert with contextual information and goal setting in a hierarchical order.
Jung's definition
Attitude is one of Jung's 57 definitions in Chapter XI of Psychological Types . Jung's definition of attitude is a "readiness of the psyche to act or react in a certain way" (Jung, [1921] 1971:par.
687). Attitudes very often come in pairs, one conscious and the other unconscious. Within this broad definition Jung defines several attitudes.
The main (but not only) attitude dualities that Jung defines are the following.
 Consciousness and the unconscious. The "presence of two attitudes is extremely frequent,
 one conscious and the other unconscious. This means that consciousness has a constellation of contents different from that of the unconscious, a duality particularly evident in neurosis" (Jung, [1921] 1971: par. 687).
Extraversion and introversion. This pair is so elementary to Jung's theory of types that he
 labeled them the "attitude-types".
Rational and irrational attitudes. "I conceive reason as an attitude" (Jung, [1921] 1971: par. 785).
 The rational attitude subdivides into the thinking and feeling psychological functions, each with its attitude.
 The irrational attitude subdivides into the sensing and intuition psychological functions, each with its attitude. "There is thus a typical thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuitive attitude" (Jung, [1921] 1971: par. 691).
 Individual and social attitudes. Many of the latter are "isms".
In addition, Jung discusses the abstract attitude. “When I take an abstract attitude...” (Jung,
[1921] 1971: par. 679). Abstraction is contrasted with creationism. “CREATIONISM. By this I mean a peculiarity of thinking and feeling which is the antithesis of abstraction” (Jung, [1921]
1971: par. 696). For example: "I hate his attitude for being Sarcastic."
Measurements
Many measurements and scales are used to examine attitudes. Attitudes can be difficult to measure because measurement is arbitrary, meaning people have to give attitudes a scale to measure it against, and attitudes are ultimately a hypothetical construct that cannot be observed directly.
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Following the explicit-implicit dichotomy, attitudes can be examined through direct and indirect measures.
Explicit
Explicit measures tend to rely on self-reports or easily observed behaviors. These tend to involve bipolar scales (e.g., good-bad, favorable-unfavorable, support-oppose, etc.). Explicit measures can also be used by measuring the straightforward attribution of characteristics to nominate groups, such as "I feel that baptists are....?" or "I think that men are...?" Likert scales and other self-reports are also commonly used.
Implicit
Implicit measures are not consciously directed and are assumed to be automatic, which may make implicit measures more valid and reliable than explicit measures (such as selfreports). For example, people can be motivated such that they find it socially desirable to appear to have certain attitudes. An example of this is that people can hold implicit prejudicial attitudes, but express explicit attitudes that report little prejudice. Implicit measures help account for these situations and look at attitudes that a person may not be aware of or want to show. Implicit measures therefore usually rely on an indirect measure of attitude. For example, the Implicit
Association Test (IAT) examines the strength between the target concept and an attribute element by considering the latency in which a person can examine two response keys when each has two meanings. With little time to carefully examine what the participant is doing they respond according to internal keys. This priming can show attitudes the person has about a particular object.
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Structure
The classic, tripartite view offered by Rosenberg and Hovland is that an attitude contains cognitive, affective, and behavioral components. Empirical research, however, fails to support clear distinctions between thoughts, emotions, and behavioral intentions associated with a particular attitude. A criticism of the tripartite view of attitudes is that it requires cognitive, affective, and behavioral associations of an attitude to be consistent, but this may be implausible.
Thus some views of attitude structure see the cognitive and behavioral components as derivative of affect or affect and behavior as derivative of underlying beliefs.
Despite debate about the particular structure of attitudes, there is considerable evidence that attitudes reflect more than evaluations of a particular object that vary from positive to negative.
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Attitudes also have other characteristics, such as importance, certainty, or accessibility (measures of attitude strength) and associated knowledge.
There is also considerable interest in inter-attitudinal structure, which connects different attitudes to one another and to more underlying psychological structures, such as values or ideology.
Function
Another classic view of attitudes is that attitudes serve particular functions for individuals. That is, researchers have tried to understand why individuals hold particular attitudes or why they hold attitudes in general by considering how attitudes affect the individuals who hold them.
Daniel Katz, for example, writes that attitudes can serve "instrumental, adjustive or utilitarian,"
"ego-defensive," "value-expressive," or "knowledge" functions. The functional view of attitudes suggests that in order for attitudes to change (e.g., via persuasion), appeals must be made to the function(s) that a particular attitude serves for the individual. As an example, the "ego-defensive" function might be used to influence the racially prejudicial attitudes of an individual who sees themselves as open-minded and tolerant. By appealing to that individual's image of themselves as tolerant and open-minded, it may be possible to change their prejudicial attitudes to be more consistent with their self-concept. Similarly, a persuasive message that threatens self-image is much more likely to be rejected.
Daniel Katz classified attitudes into four different groups based on their functions
1.
Utilitarian : provides us with general approach or avoidance tendencies
2.
Knowledge : help people organize and interpret new information
3.
Ego-defensive : attitudes can help people protect their self-esteem
4.
Value-expressive : used to express central values or beliefs
Utilitarian People adopt attitudes that are rewarding and that help them avoid punishment. In other words any attitude that is adopted in a person's own self-interest is considered to serve a utilitarian function. Consider you have a condo, people with condos pay property taxes, and as a result you don't want to pay more taxes. If those factors lead to your attitude that " Increases in property taxes are bad" you attitude is serving a utilitarian function.
Knowledge People need to maintain an organized, meaningful, and stable view of the world.
That being said important values and general principles can provide a framework for our knowledge. Attitudes achieve this goal by making things fit together and make sense. Example:
 I believe that I am a good person.
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 I believe that good things happen to good people.
 Something bad happens to Bob.
 So I believe Bob must not be a good person.
Ego-Defensive This function involves psychoanalytic principles where people use defense mechanisms to protect themselves from psychological harm. Mechanisms include:
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Denial
Repression
Projection
Rationalization
The ego-defensive notion correlates nicely with Downward Comparison Theory which holds the view that derogating a less fortunate other increases our own subjective well-being. We are more likely to use the ego-defensive function when we suffer a frustration or misfortune.
Value-Expressive
 Serves to express one's central values and self-concept.
 Central values tend to establish our identity and gain us social approval thereby showing us who we are, and what we stand for.
An example would concern attitudes toward a controversial political issue.
Formation
According to Doob (1947), learning can account for most of the attitudes we hold. The study of attitude formation is the study of how people form evaluations of persons, places or things. Theories of classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning and social learning are mainly responsible for formation of attitude. Unlike personality, attitudes are expected to change as a function of experience. In addition, exposure to the 'attitude' objects may have an effect on how a person forms his or her attitude. This concept was seen as the "Mere-Exposure Effect".
Robert Zajonc showed that people were more likely to have a positive attitude on 'attitude objects' when they were exposed to it frequently than if they were not. Mere repeated exposure of the individual to a stimulus is a sufficient condition for the enhancement of his atitude toward it. Tesser (1993) has argued that hereditary variables may affect attitudes - but believes that they may do so indirectly. For example, consistency theories, which imply that we must be consistent in our beliefs and values. As with any type of heritability, to determine if a particular trait has a basis in our genes, twin studies are used. The most famous example of such a theory is
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Dissonance-reduction theory, associated with Leon Festinger, which explains that when the components of an attitude (including belief and behavior) are at odds an individual may adjust one to match the other (for example, adjusting a belief to match a behavior). Other theories include balance theory, originally proposed by Heider (1958), and the self-perception theory, originally proposed by Daryl Bem.
Change
Attitudes can be changed through persuasion and an important domain of research on attitude change focuses on responses to communication. Experimental research into the factors that can affect the persuasiveness of a message include:
1.
Target Characteristics: These are characteristics that refer to the person who receives and processes a message. One such trait is intelligence - it seems that more intelligent people are less easily persuaded by one-sided messages. Another variable that has been studied in this category is self-esteem. Although it is sometimes thought that those higher in self-esteem are less easily persuaded, there is some evidence that the relationship between self-esteem and persuasibility is actually curvilinear, with people of moderate self-esteem being more easily persuaded than both those of high and low self-esteem levels (Rhodes & Woods, 1992). The mind frame and mood of the target also plays a role in this process.
2.
Source Characteristics: The major source characteristics are expertise, trustworthiness and interpersonal attraction or attractiveness. The credibility of a perceived message has been found to be a key variable here; if one reads a report about health and believes it came from a professional medical journal, one may be more easily persuaded than if one believes it is from a popular newspaper. Some psychologists have debated whether this is a long-lasting effect and Hovland and Weiss (1951) found the effect of telling people that a message came from a credible source disappeared after several weeks (the so-called
"sleeper effect"). Whether there is a sleeper effect is controversial. Perceived wisdom is that if people are informed of the source of a message before hearing it, there is less likelihood of a sleeper effect than if they are told a message and then told its source.
3.
Message Characteristics: The nature of the message plays a role in persuasion.
Sometimes presenting both sides of a story is useful to help change attitudes. When people are not motivated to process the message, simply the number of arguments
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presented in a persuasive message will influence attitude change, such that a greater number of arguments will produce greater attitude change.
4.
Cognitive Routes: A message can appeal to an individual's cognitive evaluation to help change an attitude. In the central route to persuasion the individual is presented with the data and motivated to evaluate the data and arrive at an attitude changing conclusion. In the peripheral route to attitude change, the individual is encouraged to not look at the content but at the source. This is commonly seen in modern advertisements that feature celebrities. In some cases, physician, doctors or experts are used. In other cases film stars are used for their attractiveness.
3.5 Emotion and attitude change
Emotion is a common component in persuasion, social influence, and attitude change.
Much of attitude research emphasized the importance of affective or emotion components.
Emotion works hand-in-hand with the cognitive process, or the way we think, about an issue or situation. Emotional appeals are commonly found in advertising, health campaigns and political messages. Recent examples include no-smoking health campaigns and political campaign advertising emphasizing the fear of terrorism. Attitudes and attitude objects are functions of cognitive, affective and conative components. Attitudes are part of the brain’s associative networks, the spider-like structures residing in long term memory that consist of affective and cognitive nodes.
By activating an affective or emotion node, attitude change may be possible, though affective and cognitive components tend to be intertwined. In primarily affective networks, it is more difficult to produce cognitive counterarguments in the resistance to persuasion and attitude change.
Affective forecasting, otherwise known as intuition or the prediction of emotion, also impacts attitude change. Research suggests that predicting emotions is an important component of decision making, in addition to the cognitive processes. How we feel about an outcome may override purely cognitive rationales. In terms of research methodology, the challenge for researchers is measuring emotion and subsequent impacts on attitude. Since we cannot see into the brain, various models and measurement tools have been constructed to obtain emotion and attitude information. Measures may include the use of physiological cues like facial expressions, vocal changes, and other body rate measures. For instance, fear is associated with raised
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eyebrows, increased heart rate and increase body tension (Dillard, 1994). Other methods include concept or network mapping, and using primes or word cues in the era .
Components of emotion appeals
Any discrete emotion can be used in a persuasive appeal; this may include jealousy, disgust, indignation, fear, blue, disturbed, haunted, and anger. Fear is one of the most studied emotional appeals in communication and social influence research. Important consequences of fear appeals and other emotion appeals include the possibility of reactance which may lead to either message rejections or source rejection and the absence of attitude change. As the EPPM suggests, there is an optimal emotion level in motivating attitude change. If there is not enough motivation, an attitude will not change; if the emotional appeal is overdone, the motivation can be paralyzed thereby preventing attitude change.
Emotions perceived as negative or containing threat are often studied more than perceived positive emotions like humor. Though the inner-workings of humor are not agreed upon, humor appeals may work by creating incongruities in the mind. Recent research has looked at the impact of humor on the processing of political messages. While evidence is inconclusive, there appears to be potential for targeted attitude change is receivers with low political message involvement.
Important factors that influence the impact of emotion appeals include self efficacy, attitude accessibility, issue involvement, and message/source features. Self efficacy is a perception of one’s own human agency; in other words, it is the perception of our own ability to deal with a situation. It is an important variable in emotion appeal messages because it dictates a person’s ability to deal with both the emotion and the situation. For example, if a person is not self-efficacious about their ability to impact the global environment, they are not likely to change their attitude or behavior about global warming.
Dillard (1994) suggests that message features such as source non-verbal communication, message content, and receiver differences can impact the emotion impact of fear appeals. The characteristics of a message are important because one message can elicit different levels of emotion for different people. Thus, in terms of emotion appeals messages, one size does not fit all.
Attitude accessibility refers to the activation of an attitude from memory in other words, how readily available is an attitude about an object, issue, or situation. Issue involvement is the
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relevance and salience of an issue or situation to an individual. Issue involvement has been correlated with both attitude access and attitude strength. Past studies conclude accessible attitudes are more resistant to change.
Attitude-behaviour relationship
The effects of attitudes on behaviours represents a significant research enterprise within psychology. Two theoretical approaches have dominated this research: the theory of reasoned action [23] and, its theoretical descendant, the theory of planned behaviour, [24] both of which are associated with Icek Ajzen. Both of these theories describe the link between attitude and behaviour as a deliberative process, with an individual actively choosing to engage in an attituderelated behaviour. An alternative model, called MODE for "Motivation and Opportunity as
Determinants" was proposed by Russell H. Fazio, which focuses on motivations and opportunities for deliberative attitude-related behaviour to occur. MODE is a Dual process theory that expects deliberative attitude-behaviour linkages - like those modeled by the theory of planned behaviour - only occur when individuals have motivation to reflect upon their own attitudes.
The theory of reasoned action (TRA), is a model for the prediction of behavioural intention, spanning predictions of attitude and predictions of behaviour. The subsequent separation of behavioural intention from behaviour allows for explanation of limiting factors on attitudinal influence (Ajzen, 1980). The Theory of Reasoned Action was developed by Martin
Fishbein and Icek Ajzen (1975, 1980), derived from previous research that started out as the theory of attitude, which led to the study of attitude and behaviour. The theory was "born largely out of frustration with traditional attitude–behaviour research, much of which found weak correlations between attitude measures and performance of volitional behaviours" (Hale,
Householder & Greene, 2003, p. 259).
The theory of planned behaviour was proposed by Icek Ajzen in 1985 through his article "From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behaviour." The theory was developed from the theory of reasoned action, which was proposed by Martin Fishbein together with Icek Ajzen in 1975.
The theory of reasoned action was in turn grounded in various theories of attitude such as learning theories, expectancy-value theories, consistency theories,[2] and attribution theory.[3]
According to the theory of reasoned action, if people evaluate the suggested behaviour as positive (attitude), and if they think their significant others want them to perform the behaviour
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(subjective norm), this results in a higher intention (motivation) and they are more likely to do so. A high correlation of attitudes and subjective norms to behavioural intention, and subsequently to behaviour, has been confirmed in many studies.
A counter-argument against the high relationship between behavioural intention and actual behaviour has also been proposed, as the results of some studies show that, because of circumstantial limitations, behavioural intention does not always lead to actual behaviour.
Namely, since behavioural intention cannot be the exclusive determinant of behaviour where an individual's control over the behaviour is incomplete, Ajzen introduced the theory of planned behaviour by adding a new component, "perceived behavioural control." By this, he extended the theory of reasoned action to cover non-volitional behaviours for predicting behavioural intention and actual behaviour.
3.6.1 How Are You Communicating to Your Team?
Communication involves the imparting or interchanging thoughts, opinions, or information among people by speech, writing, or signs. People communicate in different ways. How effective is your communication style? Are you giving away thoughts you don't mean to?
Verbal
Verbal communication entails the use of words in delivering the intended message. The two major forms of verbal communication include written and oral communication.
Written communication includes traditional pen and paper letters and documents, typed electronic documents, e-mails, text chats, SMS and anything else conveyed through written symbols such as language. This type of communication is indispensable for formal business communications and issuing legal instructions. Communication forms that predominantly use written communication include handbooks, brochures, contracts, memos, press releases, formal business proposals, and the like. The effectiveness of written communication depends on the writing style, grammar, vocabulary, and clarity.
 Oral Communication
The other form of verbal communication is the spoken word, either face-to-face, or through phone, voice chat, video conferencing or any other medium. Various forms of informal communications such as the grapevine or informal rumor mill, and formal communications such
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
 as lectures, conferences are forms of oral communication. Oral communication finds use in discussions and causal and informal conversations. The effectiveness of oral conversations depends on the clarity of speech, voice modulation, pitch, volume, speed, and even non-verbal communications such as body language and visual cues.
Verbal communication makes the process of communication easier and faster, and remains the most successful form of communication. Yet this makes up only seven percent of all human communication!
Nonverbal Communication
Non verbal communication entails communicating by sending and receiving wordless messages.
They usually reinforce verbal communication, though it can also stand alone and convey messages on its own.
Physical non verbal communication, or body language, includes facial expressions, eye contact, body posture, gestures such as a wave, pointed finger and the like, overall body movements, tone of voice, touch, and others. Facial expressions are the most common among all nonverbal communication. For instance, a smile or a frown conveys distinct emotions hard to express through verbal communication. Research estimates that body language, including facial expressions, account for 55 percent of all communication.
Paralanguage
The way something is said, rather than what is actually said, is an important component of non verbal communication. It includes voice quality, intonation, pitch, stress, emotion, tone, and style of speaking, and communicates approval, interest or the lack of it. Research estimates that tone of the voice accounts for 38 percent of all communications.
Other forms of non-verbal communication usually communicate one’s personality. These include: o Aesthetic communication or creative expressions such as dancing, painting, and the like o Appearance or the style of dressing, combing hair and the like which communicates of one’s personality o Space language such as paintings, landscapes and others communicate social status and taste o Symbols such as religious, status, or ego-building symbols
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 Visual Communication
A third type of communication is visual communication through visual aids such as signs, typography, drawing, graphic design, illustration, color and other electronic resources.
Visual communication such as graphs and charts usually reinforce written communication, and can in many case replace written communication altogether. As the adage goes “a picture is worth a thousand words”; such visual communication is more powerful than verbal and non verbal communication on many occasions. Technological developments has made expressing visual communications much easier than before.
A good understanding of different types of communications and communication styles help you know and deal with people better, clear up misunderstandings and misconceptions, and contribute to the success of the enterprise.
3.6.2 Verbal Communication
Verbal communication refers to the use of sounds and language to relay a message. It serves as a vehicle for expressing desires, ideas and concepts and is vital to the processes of learning and teaching. In combination with nonverbal forms of communication, verbal communication acts as the primary tool for expression between two or more people.
Types
Interpersonal communication and public speaking are the two basic types of verbal communication. Whereas public speaking involves one or more people delivering a message to a group, interpersonal communication generally refers to a two-way exchange that involves both talking and listening. According to Robert M. Krauss, professor of psychology at Columbia
University, signs and symbols are the major signals that make up verbal communication. Words act as symbols, and signs are secondary products of the underlying message and include things like tone of voice, blushing and facial expressions.
Purpose
Verbal communication has many purposes, but its main function is relaying a message to one or more recipients. It encompasses everything from simple one-syllable sounds to complex discussions and relies on both language and emotion to produce the desired effect. Verbal communication can be used to inform, inquire, argue and discuss topics of all kinds. It is vital to teaching and learning, as well as forming bonds and building relationships with other people.
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Although all species communicate, language itself is a purely human phenomenon that allows for more precision than the communication methods of other beings.
Challenges
A variety of challenges may arise when using verbal communication to express oneself.
Misunderstandings can arise because of poor word choice, differing perspectives and faulty communication techniques, and subjective opinions regarding acceptable language may result in breakdowns in communication. Language barriers are a major cause of confusion when attempting to communicate verbally. According to the University of Louisville, differences in language influenced by geographic location, education and social status can create barriers even among those who speak the same language.
Prevention/Solution
Although difficulties with verbal communication can't be completely avoided, it is possible to increase your chances of communicating successfully. Consider the message you wish to communicate before speaking and communicate with respect for the recipient's point of view Pay attention to what you say and how you say it. Speak clearly and enunciate your words and be conscious nonverbal aspects such as eye contact, posture and facial expressions.
Considerations
Everyone has a unique style of communicating and perceiving messages. Although verbal communication is a primary means of expression, nonverbal actions such as body language can greatly affect the way a message is perceived.
3.6.3 Types of Nonverbal Communication
According to experts, a substantial portion of our communication is nonverbal. Every day, we respond to thousands on nonverbal cues and behaviors including postures, facial expression, eye gaze, gestures, and tone of voice. From our handshakes to our hairstyles, nonverbal details reveal who we are and impact how we relate to other people.
Scientific research on nonverbal communication and behavior began with the 1872 publication of Charles Darwin's The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals . Since that time, there has been an abundance of research on the types, effects and expressions of unspoken communication and behavior. While these signals are often so subtle that we are not consciously aware of them, research has identified several different types of nonverbal communication.
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In many cases, we communicate information in nonverbal ways using groups of behaviors. For example, we might combine a frown with crossed arms and unblinking eye gaze to indicate disapproval.
1. Facial Expression
Facial expressions are responsible for a huge proportion of nonverbal communication. Consider how much information can be conveyed with a smile or a frown. While nonverbal communication and behavior can vary dramatically between cultures, the facial expressions for happiness, sadness, anger and fear are similar throughout the world.
2. Gestures
Deliberate movements and signals are an important way to communicate meaning without words. Common gestures include waving, pointing, and using fingers to indicate numeric amounts. Other gestures are arbitrary and related to culture.
3. Paralinguistics
Paralinguistics refers to vocal communication that is separate from actual language. This includes factors such as tone of voice, loudness, inflection and pitch. Consider the powerful effect that tone of voice can have on the meaning of a sentence. When said in a strong tone of voice, listeners might interpret approval and enthusiasm. The same words said in a hesitant tone of voice might convey disapproval and a lack of interest.
4. Body Language and Posture
Posture and movement can also convey a great deal on information. Research on body language has grown significantly since the 1970's, but popular media have focused on the overinterpretation of defensive postures, arm-crossing, and leg-crossing, especially after the publication of Julius Fast's book Body Language . While these nonverbal behaviors can indicate feelings and attitudes, research suggests that body language is far more subtle and less definitive that previously believed.
5. Proxemics
People often refer to their need for "personal space," which is also an important type of nonverbal communication. The amount of distance we need and the amount of space we perceive as belonging to us is influenced by a number of factors including social norms, situational factors, personality characteristics and level of familiarity. For example, the amount of personal space needed when having a casual conversation with another person usually varies between 18
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inches to four feet. On the other hand, the personal distance needed when speaking to a crowd of people is around 10 to 12 feet.
6. Eye Gaze
Looking, staring and blinking can also be important nonverbal behaviors. When people encounter people or things that they like, the rate of blinking increases and pupils dilate. Looking at another person can indicate a range of emotions, including hostility, interest and attraction.
7. Haptics
Communicating through touch is another important nonverbal behavior. There has been a substantial amount of research on the importance of touch in infancy and early childhood. Harry
Harlow's classic monkey study demonstrated how the deprivation of touch and contact impedes development. Baby monkeys raised by wire mothers experienced permanent deficits in behavior and social interaction. Touch can be used to communicate affection, familiarity, sympathy and other emotions.
8. Appearance
Our choice of color, clothing, hairstyles and other factors affecting appearance are also considered a means of nonverbal communication. Research on color psychology has demonstrated that different colors can evoke different moods. Appearance can also alter physiological reactions, judgments and interpretations. Just think of all the subtle judgements you quickly make about someone based on his or her appearance. These first impressions are important, which is why experts suggest that job seekers dress appropriately for interviews with potential employers.
3.6.4 The Seven Barriers of Communication
Most people would agree that communication between two individuals should be simple. It’s important to remember that there are differences between talking and communicating. When you communicate, you are successful in getting your point across to the person you’re talking to.
When we talk, we tend to erect barriers that hinder our ability to communicate. There are seven of these types of barriers to effective communication.
1. Physical barriers are easy to spot – doors that are closed, walls that are erected, and distance between people all work against the goal of effective communication. While most agree that people need their own personal areas in the workplace, setting up an office to remove physical
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barriers is the first step towards opening communication. Many professionals who work in industries that thrive on collaborative communication, such as architecture, purposefully design their workspaces around an “open office” plan. This layout eschews cubicles in favor of desks grouped around a central meeting space. While each individual has their own dedicated work space, there are no visible barriers to prevent collaboration with their co-workers. This encourages greater openness and frequently creates closer working bonds.
2. Perceptual barriers , in contrast, are internal. If you go into a situation thinking that the person you are talking to isn’t going to understand or be interested in what you have to say, you may end up subconsciously sabotaging your effort to make your point. You will employ language that is sarcastic, dismissive, or even obtuse, thereby alienating your conversational partner. Think of movie scenarios in which someone yells clipped phrases at a person they believe is deaf. The person yelling ends up looking ridiculous while failing to communicate anything of substance.
3. Emotional barriers can be tough to overcome, but are important to put aside to engage in conversations. We are often taught to fear the words coming out of our own mouths, as in the phrase “anything you say can and will be used against you.” Overcoming this fear is difficult, but necessary. The trick is to have full confidence in what you are saying and your qualifications in saying it. People often pick up on insecurity. By believing in yourself and what you have to say, you will be able to communicate clearly without becoming overly involved in your emotions.
4. Cultural barriers are a result of living in an ever shrinking world. Different cultures, whether they be a societal culture of a race or simply the work culture of a company, can hinder developed communication if two different cultures clash. In these cases, it is important to find a common ground to work from. In work situations, identifying a problem and coming up with a highly efficient way to solve it can quickly topple any cultural or institutional barriers. Quite simply, people like results.
5. Language barriers seem pretty self-inherent, but there are often hidden language barriers that we aren’t always aware of. If you work in an industry that is heavy in jargon or technical language, care should be taken to avoid these words when speaking with someone from outside the industry. Without being patronizing, imagine explaining a situation in your industry to a child. How would you convey these concepts without relying on jargon? A clear, direct narrative is preferable to an incomprehensible slew of specialty terms.
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6. Gender barriers have become less of an issue in recent years, but there is still the possibility for a man to misconstrue the words of a woman, or vice versa. Men and women tend to form their thoughts differently, and this must be taken into account when communicating. This difference has to do with how the brain of each sex is formed during gestation. In general, men are better at spatial visualization and abstract concepts such as math, while women excel at language-based thinking and emotional identification. However, successful professionals in highly competitive fields tend to have similar thought processes regardless of their gender.
7. Interpersonal barriers are what ultimately keep us from reaching out to each other and opening ourselves up, not just to be heard, but to hear others. Oddly enough, this can be the most difficult area to change. Some people spend their entire lives attempting to overcome a poor selfimage or a series of deeply rooted prejudices about their place in the world. They are unable to form genuine connections with people because they have too many false perceptions blocking the way. Luckily, the cure for this is more communication. By engaging with others, we learn what our actual strengths and weaknesses are. This allows us to put forth our ideas in a clear, straightforward manner.
Communication is not a one-way street. To have others open up to you, you must be open yourself. By overcoming these barriers to communication, you can ensure that the statement you are making is not just heard, but also understood, by the person you are speaking with. In this way, you can be confident that your point has been expressed.
Every public speaker should be able to:
1.
Research a topic – Good speakers stick to what they know. Great speakers research what they need to convey their message.
2.
Focus – Help your audience grasp your message by focusing on your message. Stories, humour, or other “sidebars” should connect to the core idea. Anything that doesn’t needs to be edited out.
3.
Organize ideas logically – A well-organized presentation can be absorbed with minimal mental strain. Bridging is key.
4.
Employ quotations, facts, and statistics – Don’t include these for the sake of including them, but do use them appropriately to complement your ideas.
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5.
Master metaphors – Metaphors enhance the understandability of the message in a way that direct language often can not.
6.
Tell a story – Everyone loves a story. Points wrapped up in a story are more memorable, too!
7.
Start strong and close stronger – The body of your presentation should be strong too, but your audience will remember your first and last words (if, indeed, they remember anything at all).
8.
Incorporate humour – Knowing when to use humour is essential. So is developing the comedic timing to deliver it with greatest effect.
9.
Vary vocal pace, tone, and volume – A monotone voice is like fingernails on the chalkboard.
10.
Punctuate words with gestures – Gestures should complement your words in harmony.
Tell them how big the fish was, and show them with your arms.
11.
Utilize 3-dimensional space – Chaining yourself to the lectern limits the energy and passion you can exhibit. Lose the notes, and lose the chain.
12.
Complement words with visual aids – Visual aids should aid the message; they should not be the message. Read slide:ology or the Presentation Zen book and adopt the techniques.
13.
Analyze your audience – Deliver the message they want (or need) to hear.
14.
Connect with the audience – Eye contact is only the first step. Aim to have the audience conclude “This speaker is just like me!” The sooner, the better.
15.
Interact with the audience – Ask questions (and care about the answers). Solicit volunteers. Make your presentation a dialogue.
16.
Conduct a Q&A session – Not every speaking opportunity affords a Q&A session, but understand how to lead one productively. Use the Q&A to solidify the impression that you are an expert, not (just) a speaker.
17.
Lead a discussion – Again, not every speaking opportunity affords time for a discussion, but know how to engage the audience productively.
18.
Obey time constraints – Maybe you have 2 minutes. Maybe you have 45. Either way, customize your presentation to fit the time allowed, and respect your audience by not going over time.
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19.
Craft an introduction – Set the context and make sure the audience is ready to go, whether the introduction is for you or for someone else.
20.
Exhibit confidence and poise – These qualities are sometimes difficult for a speaker to attain, but easy for an audience to sense.
21.
Handle unexpected issues smoothly – Maybe the lights will go out. Maybe the projector is dead. Have a plan to handle every situation.
22.
Be coherent when speaking off the cuff – Impromptu speaking (before, after, or during a presentation) leaves a lasting impression too. Doing it well tells the audience that you are personable, and that you are an expert who knows their stuff beyond the slides and prepared speech.
23.
Seek and utilize feedback – Understand that no presentation or presenter (yes, even you!) is perfect. Aim for continuous improvement, and understand that the best way to improve is to solicit candid feedback from as many people as you can.
24.
Listen critically and analyze other speakers – Study the strengths and weakness of other speakers.
25.
Act and speak ethically – Since public speaking fears are so common, realize the tremendous power of influence that you hold. Use this power responsibly.
3.8 METHODS FOR Successfully Dealing With Controlling, Aggressive and Difficult
People in Your Life
When people you know are really hard on you for no good reason, judging everything you say or do, please realize that it is not your fault that they behave this way. It is their problem, their upbringing and insecurities showing. They may have been mistreated as children, and as a result may harbor deep needs to control things. It's their way of trying to make things "right" in their minds, after past problems they were unable to control. This is sad, but true.
So, what do you do to deal with someone who targets you for harsh judgment, anger, or control?
Do you feel like you are walking on eggshells when around a difficult person? It is a lousy feeling to feel trapped in the radar of someone who is hard to relate to. You say one thing, they say another. Or, you do it your way, and they tell you it's all wrong and needs to be done their way. It can be a blow to your self-esteem to tolerate poor treatment like this on a long-term basis.
If you are constantly being told everything you do is wrong, or blamed for things unjustly, how
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can you feel good about yourself? The best thing to do is to consider the source and don't take anything said to you personally. Don't let the troubled person define you, remember, you define yourself. Quietly know that you are the one in control. Don't argue. The other person wants to affect you, but can't unless you let him. Leave your emotions out of it, just look at the situation for what it is: you are emotionally stronger than the other person. You don't force your will on others, or try to make them do things. You know better.
First of all, don't dignify tirades of rudeness or temper tantrums with anger back. Let the offending person own their problems by not letting them engage you in a battle. You don't have to play their game. If you react negatively, they've "won" and will feel even more powerful over you. To keep your power, the best thing to do is put up boundaries, or rules to what you will or won't tolerate. This must be done calmly, and without emotion. To be effective, you must maintain this demeanor, no matter how hard the controller tries to evoke a reaction from you. If they try to make you do something you don't want to do, tell them so and then walk away. Be a broken record, by continuing to repeat yourself calmly if they keep bugging you, if necessary.
You owe nobody an explanation; so whatever you do, please don't explain yourself. Just remove yourself from the situation, quietly. Your silence and calmness get the point across. If they follow you and want to continue the discussion, tell them you will talk to them later, and that you are to be left alone until then, then say nothing else. Just separate yourself from the situation and wait until they are more rational and calm if the discussion needs to be continued. Keep emotion out of the conversation by maintaining composure. Remember, you have a voice, and your opinion matters. When dealing with someone who is being aggressive and controlling, you are maintaining control of the situation by not fighting with the person.
Your coolness may unnerve and anger your aggressor. They want a reaction from you. Some aggressors will up the ante by threatening, insulting or getting physical. Don't tolerate violence; if you feel like your life is being threatened then leave for awhile. It pays to think ahead during high-tension situations, for safety's sake. Maintain peace by keeping your boundaries and not fighting. Eventually, the aggressor will tire of pushing the issue and back down or go find someone else to hassle.
It is possible to co-exist with controlling people but from a distance if at all possible.
Have your own opinions, live the life you want to live without apology. If you are picked on, keep cool and maintain your own individuality. It takes a lot of personal energy to defend
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oneself, so don't. Keep that energy for yourself. Remember, it is your life, nobody else's. Be at peace with yourself and others. I still have relationships with those who try to control me, but I limit my exposure to them. They have been "trained" by my lack of willingness to fight or argue, yet they still try on occasion to rile me up. It doesn't matter to me because I choose not to engage in the conflict. I believe in myself and won't surrender my personal power to anyone. Be positive and believe in yourself. Your opinions and thoughts are important and they do count, so don't let the critics get you down.
3.9
(sometimes known as Corporate Climate) is the process of quantifying the “culture” of an organization, it precedes the notion of organizational culture. It is a set of properties of the work environment, perceived directly or indirectly by the employees, that is assumed to be a major force in influencing employee behavior.
[1]
Climate and culture are both important aspects of the overall context, environment or situation.
Organizational culture
Organizational culture tends to be shared by all or most members of some social group; is something that older members usually try to pass on to younger members; shapes behavior and structures perceptions of the world. Cultures are often studied and understood at a national level, such as the American or French culture. Culture includes deeply held values, beliefs and assumptions, symbols, heroes, and rituals. Culture can be examined at an organizational level as well. The main distinction between organizational and national culture is that people can choose to join a place of work, but are usually born into a national culture.
Organizational climate, on the other hand, is often defined as the recurring patterns of behavior, attitudes and feelings that characterize life in the organization, [2] while an organization culture tends to be deep and stable. Although culture and climate are related, climate often proves easier to assess and change. At an individual level of analysis the concept is called individual psychological climate. These individual perceptions are often aggregated or collected for analysis and understanding at the team or group level, or the divisional, functional, or overall organizational level.
Approaches
There are two difficulties in defining organization climate: how to define climate, and how to measure it effectively on different levels of analysis. Furthermore, there are several
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approaches to the concept of climate. Two in particular have received substantial patronage: the cognitive schema approach and the shared perception approach.
The cognitive schema approach regards the concept of climate as an individual perception and cognitive representation of the work environment. From this perspective climate assessments should be conducted at an individual level.
The shared perception approach emphasizes the importance of shared perceptions as underpinning the notion of climate. Organisational climate has also been defined as "the shared perception of the way things are around here". There is great deal of overlap in the two approaches.
Cognitive schema approach
Cognitive representations of social objects are referred to as schemas. These schemas are a mental structure that represents some aspect of the world. They are organized in memory in an associative network. In these associative networks, similar schemas are clustered together. When a particular schema is activated related schemas may be activated as well. Schema activation may also increase the accessibility of related schemas in the associative network. When a schema is more accessible this means it can more quickly be activated and used in a particular situation.
When related schemas are activated, inferences beyond the information given in a particular social situation may influence thinking and social behavior, regardless of whether those inferences are accurate or not. Lastly, when a schema is activated a person may or may not be aware of it.
Two processes that increase the accessibility of schemas are salience and priming.
Salience is the degree to which a particular social object stands out relative to other social objects in a situation. The higher the salience of an object the more likely that schemas for that object will be made accessible. For example, if there is one female in a group of seven males, female gender schemas may be more accessible and influence the group’s thinking and behavior toward the female group member. Priming refers to any experiences immediately prior to a situation that caused a schema to be more accessible.
Shared perception approach
Some researchers have pursued the shared perception model of organizational climate.
Their model identifies the variables which moderate an organisation’s ability to mobilise its workforce in order to achieve business goals and maximise performance.
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One of the major users of this model are departments of the Queensland State Government
Australia. These departments use this model of climate to survey staff in order to identify and measure those aspects of a workplace which impact on: stress, morale, quality of worklife, wellbeing, employee engagement, absenteeism/presenteeism, turnover and performance.
While an organisation and its leaders cannot remove every stressor in the daily life of its employees, Organisational Climate studies have identified a number of behaviours of leaders which have a significant impact on stress and morale. For instance, one Queensland state government employer, Queensland Transport, has found that increasing managers’ awareness of these behaviours has improved quality of work life employees and the ability of QT’s to deliver its organisational goals.
3.7.1 Climate surveys
Theories of Cognitive and Neuropsychology and Emotional Intelligence provide additional scientific rationale for why leaders should improve stress and morale in the workplace to achieve maximum performance. Climate surveys can provide concrete evidence of how this works in action. Organisational climate surveying enables the impact of Human Resource (HR) strategies to be evaluated to create HR Return on Investment (HRROI) calculations. This data has been found to be highly effective in changing the perspective of people-based initiatives as being an “investment” rather than a “cost” and transforming HR into a “mission-critical strategic partner” from its perception of “personnel administration”.
A number of studies by Dr Dennis Rose and colleagues between 2001-2004 have found a very strong link between Organisational Climate and employee reactions such as stress levels, absenteeism and commitment and participation.
A study has found that Hart, Griffin et al.’s (1996) Organisational Climate model accounts for at least 16% single-day sick leave and 10% separation rates in one organisation.
[10][11] Other studies support the links between organizational climate and many other factors such as employee retention, job satisfaction, well-being, and readiness for creativity, innovation and change. Hunter, Bedell and Mumford have reviewed numerous approaches to climate assessment for creativity. They found that those climate studies that were based on well-developed, standardized instruments produced far higher effect sizes than did studies that were based on locally developed measures.
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• Prejudice is ubiquitous; it affects all of us—majority group members as well as minority.
People are prejudiced against many aspects of identity: nationality, ethnicity, gender, sexual preference, religion, appearance, physical state, and even professions and hobbies.
A. Prejudice and Self-Esteem
• Prejudice is dangerous, fostering negative consequences from lowered self-esteem to genocide.
• Clark and Clark (1947) showed that African-American children as young as 3 were already convinced that it was not desirable to be black, choosing to play with white rather than black dolls. This evidence led to the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision to desegregate schools.
• Goldberg (1968) showed that women had learned to consider themselves intellectually inferior to men, rating the same article higher when it was written by “John McKay” than by “Joan
McKay.”
• Over the past decades, blatant discrimination has been reduced; the previous two findings no longer replicate. However, prejudice still exists in subtle—and sometimes blatant—forms.
Prejudice Defined
• Prejudice is an attitude and thus has affective, cognitive, and behavioral components.
•
Prejudice is a hostile or negative attitude toward a distinguishable group of people based solely on their membership in that group. Prejudiced people direct their prejudice towards members of the group as a whole, ignoring distinguishing characteristics.
A. Stereotypes: The Cognitive Component
• Journalist Walter Lippman introduced the term stereotype in 1922. A stereotype is a generalization about a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members. Stereotypes are not necessarily emotionally laden and do not necessarily lead to discrimination. Frequently stereotyping is merely a way to simplify a complex world—Allport’s (1954) “law of least effort.”
1. Sports, Race, and Attributions
• The potential abuse engendered by stereotyping can be subtle as well as blatant, and involve positive as well as negative characteristics (e.g., the stereotype that African-Americans are good
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basketball players). The abuse involves ignoring the overlap of distributions and ignoring individual differences in characteristics. For example, Stone, Perry, & Darley (1997) found that those students who believed a student was African-American rated him as having better athletic ability than those who thought he was white, who rated him as having greater “basketball sense.”
2. Stereotypes, Attribution, and Gender
• Gender stereotypes are still pervasive in our society. Women are seen as more nurturant and less assertive than men; this may be due to their involvement in the homemaker role.
Evolutionary psychologists argue that the difference is due to a basis in the behaviors required for reproductive success. Whatever the cause of the difference, this stereotype does have some basis in truth. Work by Eagly, Wood, and Swim shows that there are indeed behavioral differences between men and women such that women are more concerned with the welfare of others and men are more independent and dominant.
• Nonetheless, gender stereotyping often does depart from reality and can cut deeply. For example, people tend to see men’s ability and women’s motivation as responsible for their success, and men’s lack of effort and women’s lower ability as responsible for failure. These results, originally found in the 1970s, continue to be replicated in work in the late 1990s.
• Research shows that girls are more likely to blame themselves for their failures, and boys are likely to blame bad luck. Jacobs and Eccles (1992) showed that daughters of women who held gender stereotypic beliefs were most likely to hold such self-defeating beliefs themselves.
3.8.1 B. Discrimination: The Behavioral Component
•
Discrimination is an unjustified negative or harmful action towards a member of a group, simply because of his or her membership in that group. For example, Bond, DiCandia, &
McKinnon (1988) compared how white vs. black patients in a psychiatric hospital (run by an allwhite staff) were treated. They found that, in the first 30 days of a stay, there appeared to be an assumption that blacks would be more violent than whites, as their offenses were more likely to be treated with physical restraints or drugs (Figure 13–1). However, eventually the staff did notice that there was no racial difference in violent incidents and began to treat whites and blacks equally.
1. Discrimination against Homosexuals
In a study by Hebl et al. (2002) confederates applied for jobs in the community. In some job interviews the confederates portrayed themselves as homosexuals and in other interviews they
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did not. Hebl found that in the cases where the confederates were portrayed as homosexuals the potential employers were less verbally positive and spent less time interviewing them. However, the employers did not formally discriminate against them (e.g., not calling them back as often for follow-up interviews as the other candidates).
What Causes Prejudice?
• Whether or not there is a biological root to prejudice is unknown; in any case, it is clear that prejudice occurs between biologically similar people who hold different beliefs.
• Prejudices are easy to learn, although childhood prejudices are not necessarily maintained. For example, Rohan and Zanna (1996) found the greatest similarity of beliefs for parents and their children with egalitarian values. Children whose parents hold prejudices may be exposed to competing views and not hold their parents’ prejudices.
• A schoolteacher (Jane Elliot) in Riceville, Iowa, divided her class by eye color, telling the blueeyed students that they were better than the brown-eyed students and giving them special privileges; in less than half an hour, the formerly cohesive class was split along eye-color lines, with the blue-eyed students taunting and punishing the others, and the brown-eyed students feeling so low that their academic performance was depressed. The next day, the eye-color roles were reversed, and the day after that, the class was debriefed. Even 20 years later, the students claimed the exercise had a life-long impact (see Eye of the Storm and A Class Divided in the film list).
A. The Way We Think: Social Cognition
• One explanation for prejudice is that it is the inevitable byproduct of categorization, schemas, heuristics, and faulty memory processes in processing information.
1. Social Categorization: Us versus Them
• The first step in prejudice is the creation of group categorizations. Once we have mental categories, we group stimuli into them by similarities, downplaying differences between members of a group and exaggerating differences between members of different groups.
2. In-group bias
• In-group bias is the especially positive feelings and special treatment we reserve for people we have defined as being part of our in-group (the group with which a person identifies and of which he or she feels a member), and the negative feelings and unfair treatment we reserve for
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others simply because we have defined them as being in the out-group (groups which an individual does not identify with).
• Tajfel postulates that the underlying motive behind in-group bias is self-esteem maintenance and enhancement. To study this, he invented the minimal group paradigm, in which arbitrary groups were formed by putting strangers together on the basis of trivial criteria. Even in these minimal groups, people still displayed in-group bias by rating in-group members more highly, liking them better, and rewarding them more. People even preferred to take less money as a reward for their own group, if it meant beating the out-group, rather than taking more money but being beat by the out-group.
3. Out-Group Homogeneity
• Another consequence of social categorization is the out-group homogeneity bias, the perception that those in the out-group are more similar (homogenous) to each other than they really are, as well as more similar than the members of the in-group are (i.e., the belief that
“they’re all alike”). Quattrone and Jones (1980) showed that Rutgers and Princeton students watching videos of other students (purportedly from Rutgers or Princeton) making decisions would judge the student’s selection as typical of others at his school when the person went to the rival school but not if they went to the student’s own school (Figure 13–2).
4. The Failure of Logic
• There are two reasons why it is almost impossible to get a person holding a deep-seated prejudice to change his or her mind. First, it is primarily the emotional aspect of attitudes that makes a prejudiced person hard to argue with; logic is not effective in countering emotions— people will ignore or distort any challenge to their belief. Second, people with strong prejudices have a firmly established schema for the target group(s); this will lead them to pay attention to, and recall more often, information that is consistent with their beliefs than that which is inconsistent. Thus stereotypes become relatively impervious to change.
5. The Persistence of Stereotypes
• Table 13–1 displays the beliefs of students about Americans, Japanese, Jews, and African-
Americans from 1933 to 1969. Over 30 years, the stereotypes remained fairly stable, becoming somewhat less negative. By 1969 many students felt uncomfortable with the task and only agreed to do it if it was made clear they were displaying their knowledge of societal stereotypes and not their own beliefs.
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6. The Activation of Stereotypes
• Greenberg and Pyszczynski (1985) conducted a study to find out whether knowing a stereotype will affect the processing of information about a target person even for unprejudiced people.
Observers watched a staged debate between a white and a black student; which student performed better in the debate was manipulated. Additionally, a planted confederate in the audience either made a racist remark, a nonracist remark, or no remark about the black student.
When this student was the poorer debater, the racist remark activated the negative stereotype and led to lower ratings of him than in the other conditions (Figure 13.4). Similarly, Henderson-King and Nisbett (1996) found that it took only one negative action by one African-American to activate the negative stereotype against blacks and discourage participants from wanting to interact with a different African-American. These findings suggest that stereotypes exist in most of us and are easily activated to have negative effects on the perception and treatment of outgroup members.
7. Automatic and Controlled Processing of Stereotypes
• Patricia Devine (1989) developed a theory about how stereotypical and prejudiced beliefs affect information processing. Her theory is based on the distinction between automatic and controlled information processing. According to her theory, when we process information about another, a two-step process takes place: first the stereotypes that we know about are automatically triggered, then in the controlled process we decide whether or not to accept the stereotype; unprejudiced people will use the controlled process to override it. However, if a person is distracted, overwhelmed, or not attending, the controlled processing will not be initiated, and the stereotype will prevail (see Figure 13–5). In a test of this theory, Devine showed that high and low prejudiced Ss showed equal knowledge of the stereotype of African-Americans; in a second part of the study, she displayed either stereotypical or nonstereotypical words to Ss subliminally; then she asked them to rate an ambiguous story about “Donald.” Those Ss who had been subliminally exposed to the stereotypical words rated Donald more harshly, regardless of level of prejudice. Finally, in a third study, Devine showed that, when processing consciously, high prejudice students listed significantly more negative words than low prejudice students in describing black Americans.
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8. The Justification-Suppression Model of Prejudice
• Crandall and Eshleman (2003) offer a model of the expression of prejudice. They content that people struggle between the urge to express prejudice and their need to maintain a positive selfconcept. If we find valid justification for holding a negative attitude toward a group, we can act against them and still feel as though we are not bigots.
9. The Illusory Correlation
• An illusory correlation is the tendency to see relationships, or correlations, between events that are actually unrelated. Illusory correlations are most likely to occur when the events or people are distinctive or conspicuous; minority group members are so by definition. Once formed, an illusory correlation increases attention to confirming information and decreases attention to disconfirming information. The media create illusory correlations by their stereotypical presentations of women and minorities.
10. Can We Change Stereotypical Beliefs?
• Kunda and Oleson (1997) found that when people are presented with examples that strongly challenge their existing stereotypes, they tend to dismiss the disconfirming example as “the exception that proves the rule,” and some actually strengthen their stereotypic belief.
• Nonetheless, there are some situations when stereotypes can change.
B. How We Assign Meaning: Attributional Biases
1. Dispositional versus Situational Explanations
• Stereotypes are negative dispositional attributions. Thomas Pettigrew has called our making dispositional attributions about a whole group of people the ultimate attribution error.
Bodenhausen (1988) found that students were more likely to find a defendant guilty of a crime
(ignoring extenuating circumstances) when his name was Carlos Ramirez than when it was
Robert Johnson. In an earlier study, Bodenhausen and Wyer (1985) had found that when a crime was consistent with a group stereotype, Ss were less lenient in parole decisions, ignoring other relevant information, than when the crime was inconsistent with a group stereotype. Thus when people act in a way that confirms our stereotype, we make dispositional attributions and ignore possible situational causes.
2. Stereotype Threat
• Steele and J. Aronson (1995) have shown that at least one major contributing factor is situational. They define stereotype threat as the apprehension experienced by members of a
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minority group that they might behave in a manner than confirms an existing cultural stereotype.
This worry in turn interferes with their ability to perform well in these situations. For example,
Steele and Aronson found that when white and black students were told that a difficult test they were taking was just in the development phase and thus not valid, there were no differences in performance; but when the students were told that the same test was a valid measure of intellectual ability, the blacks performed more poorly than the whites.
• Stereotype threat applies to gender as well as race. Spencer and Steele (1996) found a similar phenomenon among women taking math tests. Even white males can display the phenomenon— when compared to Asian males on a math exam (J. Aronson et al., 1999, 2000).
• The more conscious individuals are of the pertinent stereotype, the greater the effect on their performance (Brown & Pinel, 2002).
• Research indicates that providing a counter-stereotypic mind-set (e.g., I’m a student at a top university) can eliminate the effects of stereotype threat.
3. Expectations and Distortions
• When an out-group member behaves in a way that disconfirms our stereotypes, we are likely to make a situational attribution for his or her performance, leaving the stereotype intact. For example, Ickes et al. (1982) told college men that the person they would interact with was either extremely friendly or extremely unfriendly. In both conditions, the Ss went out of their way to be nice to their partners and their partner returned their friendliness. However, those who expected their partner to be unfriendly explained his friendly behavior away as being a phony response due to their own pleasant behavior.
4. Blaming the Victim
• Blaming the victim is the tendency to blame individuals (make dispositional attributions) for their victimization; ironically, it is motivated by a desire to see the world as a fair and just place where people get what they deserve. Believing that people get what they deserve leads one to blame victims for their outcomes. Negative attitudes toward the poor, including blaming them for their own plight, are more prevalent among individuals who display strong belief in a just world (Furnham & Gunter, 1984).
5. Self-Fulfilling Prophecies
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• The self-fulfilling prophecy is a process in which we find confirmation and proof for our stereotypes by unknowingly creating stereotypical behavior in out-group members through our treatment of them.
• Word, Zanna, and Cooper (1974) conducted a set of experiments that demonstrates the phenomenon. In the first study, they asked white undergraduates to interview job applicants who were either white or black. The students tended to display discomfort when interviewing the
African-Americans: for example, they sat further away, stammered, and terminated the interview earlier. In a second experiment, the researchers varied the behavior of the interviewers so that they acted towards a job candidate either the way that the interviewers had acted towards whites or the way that the interviewers had acted towards blacks in the first study. They found that those applicants who had been interviewed in the way that African-Americans had been interviewed were judged to be more nervous and less effective than the others (Figure 13–6).
C. Prejudice and Economic Competition: Realistic Conflict Theory
•
Realistic conflict theory is the theory that limited resources lead to conflict between groups and result in increased prejudice and discrimination.
1. Economic and Political Competition
• Several historical studies document that discrimination against out-groups covaries with the scarcity of jobs or other resources.
• Although correlational data is supportive of the theory, it still does not allow a causal inference.
To allow this, an experiment is essential, such as that conducted by Sherif et al. (1961). In the classic “Robber’s Cave” experiment, two groups of 12-year-old boys at a summer camp were randomly assigned to one of two groups, the Eagles or the Rattlers. In the first phase of the study, the groups were isolated and placed in situations designed to increase group cohesiveness.
In the second phase of the study, the researchers set up a series of competitive activities in which the two groups were pitted against each other. Hostility between the two groups rapidly escalated. In the next phase of the study, researchers tried to eliminate hostility by eliminating competitive games and increasing contact. This failed to reduce the hostilities (the final resolution follows later in the chapter).
2. The Role of the Scapegoat
•
Scapegoating, the tendency for individuals, when frustrated or unhappy, to displace aggression onto groups that are disliked, visible, and relatively powerless, may occur when people are
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frustrated (for example, by scarcity of resources) but there is no clear target to blame the frustration on. It may occur even in the absence of direct competition.
• Such scapegoating may be seen in recent years with homosexuality.
D. The Way We Conform: Normative Rules
• Through both explicit and implicit socialization, we are trained in the norms of our culture.
Stereotypes and prejudiced attitudes are part of this normative package.
1. When Prejudice is Institutionalized
• Institutionalized racism refers to the idea that racist attitudes are held by the vast majority of us because we live in a society where stereotypes and discrimination are the norm; institutionalized sexism is the idea that sexist attitudes are held by the vast majority of us for the same reason. In societies in which racism and sexism are institutionalized, normative conformity leads to the tendency to go along with the group in order to fulfill their expectations and gain acceptance. Pettigrew (1958) argues that the greatest determinant of prejudice is this slavish conformity to social norms. For example, he showed that ministers in Little Rock,
Arkansas, in the 1950s were personally in favor of desegregation but kept these fears to themselves. Other studies show that people’s prejudice and discrimination changes when they move to an area with different norms, or even, in a study of miners in West Virginia, when they are underground and when above. Over the past 50 years, American norms for attitudes such as that towards desegregation have changed drastically.
2. “Modern” Prejudice
• Although American norms have changed and the blatant expression of prejudice has diminished, prejudice is still with us. Modern racism is prejudice revealed in subtle, indirect ways because people have learned to hide prejudiced attitudes in order to avoid being labeled as racist. For example, many parents protest against their children being bussed only when the busing is interracial. Because of the nature of modern prejudice, it can best be studied using subtle or unobtrusive measures. For example, the bogus pipeline technique uses an impressivelooking machine labeled as a lie detector; the machine is a fake. People who are hooked up to the machine and believe that their true attitudes can be detected showed higher levels of racism and sexism than those completing the paper scales than white males.
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3. Subtle and Blatant Prejudice in Western Europe
• Pettigrew and Meertens (1995) examined blatant and modern racism in France, the
Netherlands, and Great Britain. They found that those who scored as racist on both scales wanted to send immigrants back; those who scored low on both wanted to improve their rights and were willing to take actions to do so, and those who scored as nonracist on the blatant scale but racist on the subtle scale did not want to take action to send immigrants back but nor were they willing to support any actions to help improve their rights.
E. Subtle Sexism
Subtle forms of prejudice can also be directed toward woman. Many men have feelings of ambivalence toward women and as Glick and Fiske (2001) have shown this ambivalence can take one of two forms: hostile sexism or benevolent sexism . Hostile sexism suggests that women are inferior to men while benevolent sexism tends to idealize women romantically.
3.8.2 HOW CAN PREJUDICE BE REDUCED?
• The hope that prejudice can be reduced by education has proven naive. Change requires more.
A. The Contact Hypothesis
• The contact hypothesis is the idea that merely bringing members of different groups into contact with each other will erode prejudice. This idea lay at the basis of the 1954 Supreme
Court decision on school desegregation. For example, Deutsch and Collins (1951) had shown that white and black families randomly assigned to an integrated housing unit showed reductions in racism compared to those assigned to segregated units. However, things did not work so smoothly in school desegregation: there was tension, and, in more than half of the studies, prejudice actually increased. In a quarter of the studies, the self-esteem of African-American children was found to have decreased after desegregation. Mere contact does not work.
B. When Contact Reduces Prejudice: Six Conditions
• Allport (1954) suggested that six conditions are necessary for inter-group contact to reduce prejudice: (1) mutual interdependence , or the existence of situations where two or more groups need each other and must depend on each other in order to accomplish a goal; (2) a common goal that is important to both of them; (3) equal status of group members; (4) having informal interpersonal contact; (5) multiple contacts with several members of the out-group so that individuals can learn that their beliefs are wrong; and (6) social norms in place that promote equality. When these conditions are met, suspicious or even hostile groups will reduce their
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stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. Sherif’s Robber’s Cave study, described above, ultimately resolved the intergroup hostility by fostering each of these six conditions (Figure
13.7).
C. Why Early Desegregation Failed
• In most classrooms, the environment is very competitive; when minority students who have had deficient preparation are bussed in, they are guaranteed to lose the competition. The situation is ripe for the creation of self-fulfilling prophecies by both majority and minority group members.
Thus Stephen (1978) found a general decrease in self-esteem of minority students following desegregation. To change the atmosphere of the classroom so that it meets the six conditions outlined above, Aronson and his colleagues developed the jigsaw classroom. This is a classroom setting designed to reduce prejudice and raise the self-esteem of children by placing them in small desegregated groups and making each child dependent on the other children in his or her group to learn the course material and do well in the class. Formal studies demonstrate that children in jigsaw classrooms perform better and show greater increases in self-esteem than those in traditional classrooms; further, they show more evidence of true integration and better abilities to empathize with and see the world through the eyes of others.
D. Why Does Jigsaw Work?
• Gaertner et al. (1990) suggest that the process is effective because it breaks down in-group and out-group categorization and fosters the notion of the class as a single group.
• Another reason is that it places people in a “favor-doing” situation, which leads people to like those they do favors for.
• A third reason why the jigsaw process is effective is that it encourages the development of empathy. Bridgeman thus showed that 10-year-old students who had spent two months in a jigsaw classroom were more likely to successfully take the perspective of a story character and correctly answer questions from this character’s point of view than were students who had not had the jigsaw classroom experience.
1. The Gradual Spread of Cooperative Learning
• The cooperative learning movement has been widely accepted by researchers as one of the most effective ways of improving race relations, building empathy, and improving instruction in schools. However, the educational system, like all bureaucracies, resists change, and the slowness of change can have tragic consequences.
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