The Renaissance
Synonymous with an explosion of cultural sophistication in the arts, literature, and science, the Renaissance (French, "rebirth") is often regarded as the predecessor to both the Scientific Revolution and the modern world. The Renaissance period
experienced a rebirth of the classical Greek and Roman cultures. The period between the Greco-Roman past and this rebirth
can be seen as one of cultural decline, a "Middle Age." The end of the Middle Ages in Europe brought the Bubonic Plague,
political unrest, and a decrease in the power of the Catholic Church. The Renaissance represented among other things a
period of recovery from the turmoil of the end of the Middle Ages.
POLITICS & SOCIETY
Renaissance society centered around the city state, similar
to those seen in ancient Greece. Prior to this, in the Middle
Ages, society was organized around the manor and feudal
relationships. As the crusades pulled the knights and nobles
away to fight, the feudal structure began to breakdown.
The Black Death also affected the political and social
structure of the Middle Ages. No one, not the Catholic
Church nor the feudal lords, seemed to be able to combat
the disease and save the people. The lack of strong
centralized control made people question their feudal
relationships and the Catholic Church. As the plague
subsided and the crusaders returned, society in Europe
began to change, starting with Italy.
The Birth of the Re-Birth: Italy 1350-1400
Italy was different from much of medieval Europe. Like its
neighbors, Italy experienced war, political and religious
upheaval, and diseases like the Black Death, but its long
tradition of urban life made civic life easier to maintain.
Some cities in Italy were independent of feudal lords, which
allowed them to develop their economies, political structure,
and culture along lines more in keeping with their needs and
interests. The wealth of those cities and the power of the
aristocratic and emerging merchant families were often
funneled into the city. The city elite patronized artists,
musicians, writers, and architects, whose works were
dedicated to their patrons, cities, and community pride.
Machiavelli and Political Theory
The Renaissance brought about new
ideas in political theory and
leadership. Niccolò Machiavelli book,
The Prince, introduced a new
perspective on how to acquire and
keep political power. Prior to the
Renaissance, the Catholic Church and
feudal lords would make political
decisions based on Christian
principles.
Machiavelli argued in his book that
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m/people/machiavelli/ima
political activity should not be limited
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by moral principles. The leader must
act in the best interest of the state even if those actions
are not always the best moral decisions or based in Christian
principles. Machiavelli’s theory shifted the way political
leaders thought and greatly influenced future leaders.
Economy of the Renaissance
The population of Europe finally began to stabilize following
the Black Death. These people began moving from their
feudal farms to the cities for more opportunity. Demand
for goods increased as the population grew, and a new
middle class emerged of merchants, traders, and bankers.
More diverse jobs were available for the middle class
workers than were available during the Middle Ages. Some
Italian cities, like Genoa and Venice, grew rich on trade with
the east, especially with the Byzantine Empire and the
Islamic world. With all of the growth in trade however, the
peasant class still made up 80-90% of the population of
Europe.
Renaissance Man
The renaissance period brought a renewal of confidence to
humans. People adapted a more secular approach to life
where they did not focus as much on religion but on their
own capabilities. It was during this time period where the
concept of the “renaissance man” or “universal man” began
to appear. The “renaissance man” was a man who was well
rounded and was capable of achievements in many areas of
life. For example, Leonardo da Vinci was a good example of
this new regard for human worth and capability because he
was a painter architect, inventor, and sculptor.
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The Renaissance (cont.)
EDUCATION & ART
Humanism
Humanism was a key intellectual movement of the
Renaissance, focusing on the study of the ancient Greek and
Roman classics. Humanism encouraged the use of classical
Latin and Humanist schools taught a broad range of liberal
studies. The classical Humanist studies included rhetoric,
poetry, philosophy, and history. The goal of the humanists
was to prepare the students for life and to be complete
citizens. Humanists wished to put the knowledge of the
great thinkers of the past to work in their societies and
improve education, government, and the quality of life.
Today their education would be called the humanities.
Vernacular Literature
Although the Humanism movement encouraged the use of
Latin, some authors decided to write their works in the
vernacular, or the language of the common people. Many of
the peasants could not take time to study Latin, so
literature was not accessible to them. When authors began
to write in the vernacular, more people had the opportunity
to read the literature. Dante most famous for writing The
Divine Comedy, of which one part is called The Inferno,
wrote in Italian. Chaucer who wrote The Canterbury Tales
wrote in middle English. These two authors wrote in the
common language bringing literature to the common man.
Art and Architecture
Painting, sculpture, and architecture were among the
revolutionary achievements of Renaissance art. In trying to
imitate nature, artists worked hard to master movement and
perspective (paintings that looked three dimensional). Many
works of art were commissioned by wealthy merchants from
Italian city states where the works would be displayed upon
completion.
Secularism also influenced the artwork of the renaissance.
Fewer of the pieces were religious in nature as compared to
the Middle Ages where nearly every piece of art reflected
religion. Elements of ancient Greek and Roman art and
architecture began to appear again. Some Renaissance
artists would create replicas of artwork from those time
periods. Many of the buildings constructed during the
renaissance utilized mathematical proportions and dome and
arch elements common to ancient Greece and Rome.
A few of the most famous renaissance artists are Raphael,
Leonardo da Vinci, and Michelangelo.
Excerpt from
Raphael’s Sistine
Madonna
Leonardo da Vinci’s
Mona Lisa
Excerpt from
Michelangelo’s
Creation of Man
(Sistine Chapel)
The Impact and Legacy of the Renaissance
Often when people think of the Renaissance, they think of art. Indeed, during that period, art flourished and evolved as new
principles of balance, harmony, and perspective were established. Today, the Renaissance is often linked to the great feats of
art, engineering, and science that such men as Michelangelo, Da Vinci, and Galileo achieved. Like their literary associates,
those Renaissance figures characterize much of what made the Renaissance a definable period; all of them shared a value for
the classical past, a belief in the ability of man to reach new heights, and an interest in societal improvement, be it in making
beautiful works of art or improving knowledge of our world. By and large, the Renaissance today is viewed as a literary and
cultural movement, one that in time came to affect many aspects of life, from politics to building design, from Biblical analysis
to Latin verse, from Italy to England.
The Protestant Reformation
The Catholic Church was the only unifying force in Western Europe. The Protestant Reformation marks the division of
Christianity in Western Europe between the Catholic faith and the newly created protestant faith. The religious schism led
to political turmoil and even war. Over time, the protestant faith further divided into different sects such as Lutheranism,
Calvinism, Anglican and Anabaptist. These sects have evolved into several of the protestant denominations common today.
Concerns with the Catholic Church
Power of the Pope
Suspicious had been rising about corruption within the
church and the behavior of the popes. The popes during the
Renaissance were more concerned with Italian politics and
worldly interests than with spiritual matters. One pope in
particular, Julius II, recruited an army and led them against
his enemies. Many of the parishioners opposed this action
because they believed that the pope should not be a military
leader.
The Reform Movement
Martin Luther
The first and perhaps strongest voice calling for reform was
that of Martin Luther, a German Augustinian friar who
posted a list of grievances against the Catholic Church in
1517. The publication of Luther's Ninety-Five Theses
marked the beginning of the Reformation—a movement that
at first demanded reform from within the Church but
ultimately resulted in the establishment of separate,
Protestant churches.
Relics and Indulgences
Church officials tried to advance their careers and wealth
through their positions. These officials seemed ignorant of
their spiritual duties and could not offer an explanation to
the people about how to achieve salvation. As a result, the
Catholic Church created a system by which people could buy
their salvation.
Ninety-Five Theses
Luther organized his concerns with the Catholic Church into
a list, the Ninety-Five Theses. He sent the list to his
church superiors. In the Ninety-Five Theses, Luther
attacked the sale of relics and indulgences. Luther argued
that it was by faith alone that people are saved, not by good
works. Humans could not earn their salvation. He also
called for national, rather than Roman, control of Church
finances; permission for the clergy to marry; and a series of
sacramental reforms that reduced the sacraments to
baptism and communion. His ideas were quickly and widely
accepted, and his followers became known as Lutherans.
People could buy indulgences, release from the punishment
of sin, in the form of a certificate. They could also buy a
relic and have a priest bless it and receive an indulgence.
There was no limit on the number of indulgences a person
could obtain and people could buy indulgences for deceased
family members. Essentially these certificates would
shorten the amount of time one would spend in purgatory.
The change in culture brought about from the Renaissance
encouraged people to reevaluate the Catholic Church and
eventually seek reform within the church.
Compromise
Although the pope condemned Luther as a heretic, he was
protected by a number of the German princes—either
because they truly believed in the ideals of the Reformation
or because the Reformation allowed them to assume many of
the privileges once reserved for the Church. In 1555, the
German princes agreed to the Peace of Augsburg. Its terms
provided that each of the rulers of the German states could
choose between Roman Catholicism and Lutheranism.
The Printing Press
In the mid-15th century, Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press and brought printing
to Europe. The Song Dynasty had invented moveable type almost 300 years before the Europeans,
but the technology was not invented in Europe until the 1450s. The first book Gutenberg
printed was the bible. His mechanical method of printing produced books more rapidly, in larger
quantities, and with more uniformity than had been previously possible when books were
transcribed by hand. By 1500, there were over a thousand printers in Europe. Almost forty
thousand titles had been published; more than half were religious books.
The printing of books encouraged scholarly research and increased the public’s desire to gain
knowledge. The new renaissance ideas and religious ideas of the reformation, especially copies of
the Ninety-Five Theses, would not have spread as rapidly without the printing press.
The Protestant Reformation
The Spread of the Reformation
Luther was not the only one who questioned Catholic
doctrines. As copies of the bible circulated, more scholars
were able to read the text. Traditionally in the Catholic
Church, only the priests were allowed to read the bible and
interpret it for the people. For the first time, many people
had access to the holy book and could create their own
theologies. As a result, several other protestant
denominations began to develop. Two are described below.
Calvinism
John Calvin converted to Protestantism and published a book
summarizing his interpretation of Protestantism. His
followers became known as Calvinists. Calvinists spread their
ideology through missionaries in Europe. On most doctrines,
Calvin agreed with Luther. However, Calvin emphasized the
doctrine of predestination, the idea that God determined in
advance who would be saved. In the 17th and 18th centuries,
Calvinism served as the religious basis for the French
Huguenots, Scottish Presbyterians, and many English
Puritans.
The Church of England (Anglican Church)
When Henry VIII became king of England in 1509, he was a
devout Catholic who had absolutely no use for the ideas of
Martin Luther. However, when he desired to end his marriage
to Catherine of Aragon in 1527 because she had not given
him a male heir, he needed a way around Church law, which
did not allow divorce. The pope refused Henry VIII's
request to annul the marriage. In response, Henry VIII
called a special meeting of Parliament, which became known
as the Reformation Parliament, and asked it to strip away the
pope's power in England and make the king the head of the
Church of England. England's break with the pope and the
Roman Catholic Church was made final in 1534.
The Counter-Reformation
Within the Catholic Church, a series of powerful popes
responded to demands for reform. Their efforts became
known as the Counter-Reformation, or Catholic Reformation.
A new religious order, the Jesuits was formed to teach and
reinforce the Catholic doctrine to clergy and lay people and
also to prevent the spread of Protestantism.
Pope Paul III convened the Council of Trent in 1545 to
initiate a general reform of the Church and precisely defined
its doctrines. The decrees of the council were finally
confirmed and set the standard of faith and practice for the
Church until the mid-20th century. Besides resolving for
Roman Catholics some crucial doctrinal questions, the council
also imparted to their leaders a sense of cohesion and
direction that became an essential element of the
revitalization of the Church during the Counter-Reformation.
CHRISTIANITY
Protestant
Reformation
(1517)
Anabaptism
Anglican
Calvinism
Lutheranism
Roman Catholicism
Great Schism
(1054)
Eastern Orthodox
Religious Conflicts
With the advent of new religions, the unity Catholicism
provided in Europe began to erode. Some monarchs tried to
force their subjects to follow one religion and this led to a
series of wars for religious freedom similar to what occurred
in Germany when Luther first introduced Lutheranism.
France
Although a primarily Catholic country, Calvinism began to
spread especially within the nobility class. The King of France
persecuted the Protestants. The French Calvinists
(Huguenots) fought for their right to practice Calvinism in
France. The French War of Religions as it was known lasted
from 1562-1598. The Edict of Nantes which officially ended
the war officially declared Catholicism as the religion of
France but also allowed the Huguenots the freedom to
practice Calvinism.
England
State religion in England became the Anglican Church with
King Henry VIII’s decree. His daughter, Queen Mary,
assumed the throne and declared Catholicism the official
religion of England. To encourage people to convert she
created laws favoring Catholics, and she persecuted the
Protestants, burning several alive. This is where she earned
her nickname “Bloody Mary”. After Mary died, her halfsister Queen Elizabeth I assumed the throne and instituted
moderate policies of religion. She declared the Anglican
Church the official church of England but did not persecute
people of other denominations.
Spain
Catholicism had deep roots in Spain. Internally Spain did not
experience an upheaval during the reformation movement,
but King Phillip II of Spain made an effort to preserve
Catholicism in the Netherlands (Holland) and England. Spain
was successful in preserving Catholicism in the southern area
of the Netherlands which then split from the northern
region and became Belgium. Phillip II then made an attempt
to return England to the Catholic Church after Queen
Elizabeth took power. In 1588, he sent the Spanish armada
to attack England, who had the strongest navy at the time.
The attack was unsuccessful, and England remained
protestant.