Unit 3
Features of consonants:
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Voicing: voiced-voiceless.
Place of articulation.
(Secondary articulation)
Manner of articulation: plosives (stops), fricatives, affricates, nasals, laterals,
approximants, trills (rolls), taps (flaps), etc.
Effort involved: fortis-lenis contrast.
/p/ - /b/
Definition:
/p/ - voiceless (fortis)
/b/ - voiced (lenis)
Bilabial plosives.
Spellings:
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/p/ corresponds to <p>, except in hiccough (also spelt hiccup).
Silent p in receipt, psalm, pneumonia, cupboard.
/b/ corresponds to <b>, but it is silent in debt, doubt, subtle, climb, thumb.
Remarks:
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/p/ is usually aspirated [ph] in stressed position: pain, impatient.
They often become [ʔ] before nasals: happen, topmost, submerge, ribbon.
In final position the voicing contrast in neutralized, as there is no release: bulb, gulp.
/t/ - /d/
Definition:
/t/ - voiceless
/d/ - voiced (lenis)
Alveolar plosives.
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Spelling:
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/t/ corresponds to <t, tt> and exceptionally <th> in thyme, Thames, Thomas,
Thompson, Theresa.
/d/ corresponds to <d, dd>
Silent t in castle, (often), fasten, Christmas, Hertfordshire.
/t/ is usually aspirated [th] initially: time, intention.
Both /t/ and /d/ often become [ʔ] before other consonants: football, adjective.
In dialects such as Cockney and Estuary English [ʔ] happens in more locations:
flatmate.
*Regular past –ed endings: /t/ after voiceless/fortis consonants: stopped, guessed. /d/
follows voiced consonants and vowels: filmed, played, realized.
Added syllable /ɪd/ after final /t/ or/d/: spotted, hooded.
The adjectives wicked, (learned), naked, (aged), wretched, ragged, crooked, rugged
have final /ɪd/. They are not verbs.
Remarks:
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They may have nasal release in button, eaten, burden or laterally in little, bottle,
noodle.
Voicing is usually neutralized finally, as in mate, maid (“unreleased”).
In GenAm as a rule there is an alveolar tap [ɾ] replacing both /t/ and /d/ in some
environments: city, today, powder, dirty, forty.
/k/ - /g/
Definition:
/k/ - voiceless (fortis)
/g/ - voiced (lenis)
Velar plosives.
Spelling:
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<k, c, cc>, before <a,o,u, qu /kw/, x /ks/, ch (variably)>: king /kɪŋ/, accurate, quick,
care, stomach, chemistry, character, fix.
Silent <k> in know, knife, knight.
<g, gg, gh, gu, x /gz/>: gate, give, struggle, ghost, guard, guide, guess, guilty, exam,
example.
Silent <g> in gnat, gnaw, reign, sign, foreign.
<u> can be pronounced after <g>: argue /'ɑ:gju:/, penguin /'peŋgwɪn/, anguish
/'æŋgwɪʃ/.
<g> can be /dʒ/ before <I, y, e>: clergy /'klɜ:dʒi/, gesture. /'dʒestʃə/
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Remarks:
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/k/ is usually aspirated [kh] in stressed position: kid /kɪd/, kind /'ʌn'kaɪnd/.
Sometimes [ʔ] appears instead of or reinforcing these plosives: actor /'æʔktə/, dog
food /dɒʔ’fu:d/
[ʔ]*
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The glottal stop often works as a syllable marker, as in co-operate, Geography, to eat.
It also reinforces or replaces another plosive: submit, atmosphere.
In connected speech it is even more common good morning, top floor.
Local (esp. London) and less refined varieties also show it: What are you waiting for?
It is defined as voiceless/fortis glottal plosive. It is not used in phonemic transcription.
/tʃ/ - /tʒ/
/tʃ/ - voiceless (fortis)
/tʒ/ - voiced (lenis)
Palato-alveolar affricates (also defined as postalveolar)
Spelling:
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<ch, tch, t+ure, t+eous, t+ion (after <s>): charge /tʃɑ:dʒ/, orchard /'ɔ:tʃəd/, butcher
/'bʊtʃə/,nature /'neɪtʃə/, question /'kwestʃən/, (Christian) /'krɪstʃən/.
<j, g, dg, gg, dj, de, di, ch>: jacket /'dʒækɪt/, George /dʒɔ:dʒ/, budget /'bʌdʒɪt/,
suggest /sə'dʒest/, adjust /ə'dʒʌst/, deuce /dju:s/.
Remarks:
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Many speakers use /dj/ in during, soldier.
The biggest trouble for Spanish speakers lies between /dʒ/ and /j/: jet /dʒet/, yet /jet/.
They should also realize their difference in final position: George /dʒɔ:dʒ/, church
/tʃɜ:tʃ/.
/tr/ - /dr/*
Definition:
/tr/ - voiceless (fortis)
/dr/ - voiced (lenis)
Post-alveolar affricates.
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Spelling:
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<tr, dr> in true drive. Also an alternative sound to /tər, dər/ in history, cemetery,
wandering.
Remarks:
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They are no longer considered as single phonemes by many authors.
/f/ - /v/
Definition:
/f/ - voiceless (fortis)
/v/ - voiced (lenis)
Labio-dental fricatives.
Spelling:
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<f, ff, ph, gh>: fork /fɔ:k/, physics /'fɪzɪks/, afford /ə'fɔ:d/, enough, laugh, rough, tough,
laughter, draught, (draft).
<v, f, ph>: vine /vaɪn/, (of) /əv/, (nephew) /'nevju:/, Stephen.
Silent <gh> in slaughter /'slɔ:tə/,
Also lieutenant /lef'tenənt/ in British English.
Remarks:
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There is actually no difference between the weakened forms of of and have.
Spanish–speaking learners must mark the difference between /v/ and /b/ - vet, bet.
/ θ / - /ð/
Definition:
/θ/ - voiceless (fortis)
/ð/ - voiced (lenis)
Dental fricatives.
Spelling:
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<th>: thick, thumb, booth, youth, breath, worth and other, the, this, worthy, breathing,
with.
<th> stand for /t/ in thyme /taɪm/, Thames /temz/, Thomas, Thompson, Therese. There may
be /ð/ or /θ/ in without /wɪð'aʊt/.
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Remarks:
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Local accent speakers in London make no distinction between free-three, foughtthought, pronouncing /f/ in both, and /v/ for / ð/ in brother.
Traditional Irish speakers may often say tin for thin.
/s/ - /z/
Definition:
/s/- voiceless (fortis)
/z/ - voiced (lenis)
Alveolar fricatives.
Spelling:
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<s, ss, c, sc, x (/ks/), (cc)>: seat /si:t/, pass /pɑ:s/, piece, science, fax, vaccine.
<s, ss, z, zz, x (/ɡz/): rose /rəʊz/, scissors /'sɪzəz/, zip /zɪp/, dizzy /'dɪzi/, exactly
/ɪg'zæktli/, exam /ɪg'zæm/.
Remarks:
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/z/ appears in weak auxiliaries, articles, conjunctions, etc, such as was, has, is, as,
these, those, but there is voiceless /s/ in yes, this, its, it’s, that’s.
/s/ is always present in initial clusters: speak, stay, sky, smear, snipe, etc. In final
position, after a voiceless sound: thanks, faults.
In plurals and verb endings after a voiced or vocalic sound we have /z/: cares, knows,
plays, behaves, listens, touches, passes and windows, jewels, roses, others. Also in
always, besides, etc.
/z/ appears in final clusters after voiced sounds: legs, battles, hundreds, visions.
There is usually /z/ between vowels if it is unstressed: easy.
Singular nouns ending in <-ce> have final /s/: choice, patience, piece, and also many
with final <-se>: horse, mouse.
There is /z/ in news, alms and verbs: please, lose, browse.
Notice the change in house /s/ - houses /zɪz/, close, use (verbs /z/ - adj/noun /s/), crisis
/'kraɪsɪs/, crises /'kraɪsi:z/.
Setting a comprehensive rule for the distribution of these two phonemes is quite
complicated (horse /s/, nose /z/ ?) so we can only rely on practice and contrast in
many cases.
/ʃ/ - /ʒ/
Definition:
/ʃ/ - voiceless (fortis)
/ʒ/ - voiced (lenis)
Palato-alveolar fricatives.
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Spelling:
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<sh, ch, sch, s, ss, also ti, si, sci, ci, ce, x> shoe, machine, (schedule), sure, sugar,
assure, nation, mansion, mission, conscience, special, ocean, anxious.
<si, s, z>, final <ge>: vision, measure, pleasure, seizure, beige, prestige.
Remarks:
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Some clusters may be difficult to Spanish speakers: shrink.
They should also exercise the contrasts among /tʃ/ - /dʒ/ - /ʃ/ - /ʒ/.
/ʒ/ hardly ever occurs initially (genre).
/h/
Definition:
Voiceless (lenis)
Glottal fricative
Spelling:
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<h, wh>: how, ahead, behind, who, whose (which, white).
Silent <h> in hour, honest, honour, exhaustive, vehicle, Buckingham.
Remarks:
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The omission of /h/ is quite common in local speech. In unstressed words it is often
absent in RP: he loved her.
The use of /hw/ or [ʍ] in wh- words is still considered correct in British and American
educated English, especially in Scotland, although it is now declining.
Spanish speakers should take care not to turn /h/ into /x/.
/m/
Definition:
Voiced
Bilabial nasal
Spelling:
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<m, mm>, finally <mb, mn>: meat, summer, name, criticism, comb autumn, column.
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Remarks:
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Spanish learners should be careful not to turn /m/ into /n/ in final position or in
clusters: come, empty.
There is the possibility of a syllabic [m] in rhythm when the schwa is totally lost.
/m/ is often the result of assimilation when /n/ appears before bilabials: in pairs, on
board.
If <p, b> follow in the same syllable, they are not pronounced (lamb, climb, empty).
/n/
Definition:
Voiced
Alveolar nasal
Spelling:
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<n, nn, kn, gn, pn>: now, funny, knife, gnat, sign, foreign, pneumatic.
Recent French loans keep their nasalized vowel: genre, lingerie, rendez-vous.
Remarks:
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Syllabic [n] behaves functionally as a vowel in ribbon, (open), southern, reason, where
/ən/ is an alternative, as reflected in LPD.
/ŋ/
Definition:
Voiced.
Velar nasal.
Spelling:
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<ng>, <n> + other velar sounds: tongue, singing, sink, uncle, anxious.
Remarks:
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Single-morpheme words, such as anger, finger, angle, have /ŋɡ/
Those with more morphemes (singer, ringing) only have /ŋ/, except comparatives and
superlatives: longer, strongest /ŋɡ/.
For many speakers in America and Ireland, -ing, forms are /ɪn/, making homophones of
driving and drive-in.
Spanish users should drill the velarity of this sound.
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/l/
Definition:
Voiced.
Alveolar lateral.
Approximant.
Spelling:
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<l, ll> : light, fill, kettle.
<l> is frequently silent after vowels: talk, walk, should, would, calm, folk, half.
Remarks:
Three allophones deserve attention:
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Syllabic [ ̩l] in apple, middle, parcel, final, mantle.
Dark [ɫ]following vowels (not in Irish English): call, told, feel.
Voiceless [̥l], in clusters after voiceless consonant: play, flap.
Spanish learners should practice the syllabic allophone without vowels.
Pre -/l/ breaking happens frequently, but is not normally reflected in dictionaries:
wheel.
/r/
Definition:
Voiced.
Postalveolar approximant.
Spelling:
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<r, rr, wr, rh>: red, carry, write, wrong, rhythm.
Remarks:
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It is important to stress the allophonic variety of this phoneme.
Roll or trill (fortis) [r] in some Scottish speakers. Tap or flap [ɾ] in Yorkshire, Wales,
Scotland and Northern Ireland, in RP sometimes in very, tree.
This is the standard realization in GenAm of /t/ and /d/ in beautiful, thirty, dirty.
Retroflex [ɻ] in American and SW British.
Uvular [ʁ] in some speakers in the NE of England and Scotland.
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Variation between rhotic and non-rhotic accents:
RP/NRP, as non-rhotic accents, do not have postvocalic /r/, except when a vowel follows in the
same word or in connected speech:morale, far away ( linking or sandhi /r/)
GenAm is predominantly a rhotic accent, it shows postvocalic /r/ in further or a rhoticized (rcoloured) [ɚ]
Other non-rhotic accents: Estuary English (including Cockney) and Australian English. Other
rhotic accents: Scottish and Irish.
A so-called intrusive /r/ happens frequently in non-rhotic accents connecting the vocalic
ending of a word with the vocalic beginning of the next one with no spelling support: I saw (r)
it, the idea (r) of…
/j/
Definition:
Voiced
Palatal approximant.
Spelling:
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<y,i>, also <eu, u, ew, eau, ui>: yesterday, companion, music, feudal, few, beauty
(suit).
Remarks:
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Yod-dropping: many Americans omit it in new, reduce, presume.
It is an RP alternative in suit, assume.
It appears initially in yes, yard, used, young.
Often mistaken for /dʒ/ by Spanish speakers: yet-jet, yolk-joke.
Instances such as opinion, onion may present [ɲ], resembling Spanish ñ.
/w/
Definition:
Voiced.
Labial-velar approximant.
Spellings:
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<w, wh, u> after <g, q>: west, wood, where, quick, language.
Also in one, once, choir, suit.
Silent <w> in whole, sword, answer, Norwich, Greenwich, Warwick.
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Remarks:
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In wh- words like which, white, why the historical voiceless fricative pronunciation with
/hw/ or [ʍ] may still be used by many speakers in Scotland, Ireland and North
America, producing minimal pairs in witch-which, wear-where.
Spanish speakers should not replace it for /b/ or add /ɡ/ in its pronunciation.
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