Domain/kingdom
Bacteria, archea
Features
Prokaryotes are also archea
and eubacteria. They are
domain not kingdom. They
changed the name of both
bacteria are way too
different. Bacteria are more
closely related to animals. A
prokaryote is a group of
organisms who lack a cell
nucleus, mitochondria, or
any other membrane-bound
organelles. Most of them are
unicellular. Prokaryotes
reproduce asexually.
Evolution
chemoautotrophic bacteriaThese are bacteria which
manufacture organic
compounds from inorganic
energy sources using carbon
dioxide
Groups
Shape classification: Bacillus
- Rod-shaped Bacteria, Cocci
- Spherical shaped Bacteria,
Spirillum- Spiral shaped
Bacteria.
Autotrophic: An organism
capable of synthesizing its
own food from inorganic
substances. Heterotrophic:
An organism that cannot
synthesize its own food and
is dependent on complex
organic substances for
nutrition.
Pathogenic: Infective, able to
cause diseases. Intracellular:
Located at cells and always
cause diseases.
Gram positive is
purple/darker. Gram
negative is pink/light.
Binary fission: one cell splits
into two. Fragmentation,
budding.
Archae are extremophile
because they live in extreme
condition, temperature.
Other
Food poisoning caused by
bacteria and their products
is a serious problem. certain
bacteria are safe in food, and
are required for the desired
taste and texture. Bacteria
are commonly used in dairy
products. The more bacteria
a person has the longer that
person stay alive. Lactic acid
bacteria are able to kill
Listeria, a newly discovered
ability that supports the
safety of cured meats.
Bacterial cells are much
smaller than human cells,
and there are at least ten
times as many bacteria as
human cells in the body.
Bacteria produce chemicals
that help us harness energy
and nutrients from our
food And one chemical
released by the bacterium
Bacteroides fragilis is
capable of directing how the
developing immune system
matures and makes it
stronger.
Protist
Lacks definite features of a
plant, animal, fungi.
Eukaryote, unicellular but
sometimes and come
together and are
multicellular. Therefore, is
group by being animal like,
plant like, fungi like.
Features of animal like
protist:
Heterotrophic, always
unicellular, mobile, eats by
surrounding and engulfing
their prey, classified by the
way they move: sarcodina,
paramecium, flagellate
sporozoan.
Plant-like protists:
Autotrouphs , can move
from place to place,
unicellular. Classified down
to four: euglenoids,
dinoflagellates, diatoms,
algae. Don’t have a cellulose
cell wall.
Archae are autotrophs and
heterotrophs.
A plasmid is a circle of DNA
that bacteria can absorb into
the cell.
Both ciliates and flagellate
evolve from bacteria.
Ciliates and flagellate move
by pseudopods.
They evolved from bacteria:
Membrane folded in to
create the nuclear envelop.
Went through
endosymbiosis to become
eukaryotic. Chloroplast or
mitochondrial.
Sarcodina:
Animals that move by
pseudopods. Forms when
cytoplasm pushing into the
membrane. (must know how
to draw)
Malaria:
Only way can get is a person
gets bitten by a mositiqo.
We get sporozoites stage
goes into the liver. Inside the
liver it becomes a
merozoites which then
infects the blood. When it
goes into the blood gametes
happen.
Endosymbiosis in a nutshell:
Start with two independent
bacteria. One bacterium
engulfs
Ciliates:
Moves by using the cilia. Cilia
are tiny hair like structures
that help the organism move
or sweep food into them
great at maneuvering,
ferocious hunter.
Paramisium is an entrance
into the cell. Oral groove are
in paramisium.
Flagellate:
Uses a flagella to move.
Flagella: a long thin hair like
that whips around to move.
Uses as much as 1-8
flagellate.
Ways to reproduce:
Unicellular and multicellular.
Unicellular- n means the
number of chromosomes.
Asexual-reproduction
without sex. In multicellular.
Produce spores. Seed is
diploid spores is haploid.
Sexual reproduction
(unicellular )
- During environmental
stress – chlamydomonas
species reproduce sexually
1. The haploid cell divides
first by mitosis to produce
Fungi-like protists:
Are all motile at one point.
Can move sometimes.
External digestion.
Heterotrophic. 2 groups:
water mold and slime mold.
Opisthokont an imaginary
group of fungi and animal.
Not a fungi because of keitin
and not multicellular.
Sporozoa:
Can move in any of the three
ways describes. Parasitic.
Causes malaria. Example:
plasmodium.
Euglenoids:
Has a flagella. Does
photosynthesis. Can change
from autotrophic to
heterotrophic to maintain
the oxygen level.
Dinoflagellates:
Unicellular. Have more than
2 flagella. Found in fresh
water. Reproduce by mitosis.
Diatoms:
Photosynthetic. Unicellular.
Unique double shells that
are made of silica. Have two
type of symmetry: radial or
bilateral.
Algae:
Usually multicellular. Lives n
both fresh and saltwater.
Broken up into: red algae,
green algae, brown algae
glaucophyta (unicellular).
Water mold:
haploid gametes.
2. After they are released a
pair of gametes from
different chlamydomonas
individuals fuse to form a
pair.
3. The pair then shed their
cell walls and fuse into a
diploid zygote with a thick
protective wall call
zygospre
Sexual reproduction (
multi cellular)
- Two ways
- Alternation of
generations and
conjugation
- Alternation of
generations characterized by two
distinct multi cellular
phases
1. Diploid – spore
producing phase called the
sporophyte generation
2. Haploid – gamete
Oomycete. Originally
classified as fungi. Close
relative with brown algae
and diatoms. Has diploid
cells. Feed on decaying
tissue like rotting logs and
mulch(semi digested
material). Can cause
diseases in fish.
Slime mold:
Lives in moist soil, decaying
plants, and trees. Engluf
bacteria and other organic
material. Single celled
organisms but can join
together and become
multicellular 2 types(cellular
and plasmodial). Can choose
between multicellular and
unicellular.
Fungi
-Eukaryotic
-Achlorophylous (no
chlorophyll)
-Unicellular (some like
yeast)
-Multicellular (Most)
-Membrane-bound
-Fungi and animal came
from protest and they
belong to Opisthokont
-mycorrhizae (first living
thing on land, which are
fungi and plant living
together) and plant
-Zoospores: spores that
are like animals because
they have tails and can
move
-Phyla of Fungi:
Chytridionyta-(also called
imperfect fungi because
producing phase called the
gametophyte generation.
Importance to humans:
We humans benefits from
the gas that protists produce
oxygen. Protest also help to
recycle important chemicals
such as: nitrogen, carbon,
etc. Responsible for
decomposing and recycling
nutrients.
-decomposers
-mycelium is important
because they release
enzyme into their
surrounding and break
down food for other
organism as well as
organelles
growth
-Cell wall composed of
polysaccharide and chitin
-Reproduce sexually or
asexually
-Hyphae is like the root of
a fungi, they absorb
nutrients and water and
also sexual reproduction
-mycelium is a network of
hyphae
-spores are cells that are
covered by a thick cell wall
-cell wall contains chitin: it
strengthens the cells of
fungi
scientist never saw them
have sex) produce sexually
and asexually but we
never saw it (e.g. yeast)
Lives mostly in water.
They use zoospores to
asexually produce.
Gametothallas
Zygomycota-mold and
decomposing fungi,
produce sexually by using
the zygospore
Ascomycota- Looks like a
sac or a cup, spores are
produced inside the sac or
ascus. Sac fungi are
decomposers,
Basidiomycota- Basidium
is the reproductive organ
which makes the spores.
Spores are called
basidious spores.
-mycota means fungus
-Imperfect fungi join
together to become layers
and they can produce
cheese and some are
parasite
-lichens are protest or
photosynthetic bacteria
anchoring the soil
-fungi break down poop
into oxygen hydrogen and
carbon for plants to
absorb
-recycling of nutrients as
well as anchoring the soil
(holds the soil down as it
grows across the surface)
-food
-plasmogamy: cells grow
together and join together
(into each other). One cell
two nuclei.
Karyogamy: double
number of chromosomes
because of 2 nuclei
-decompose and recycle
-Some fungi are used to
make antibiotics, fungi use
it to stop bacteria from
taking all their food
-causes diseases such as
the athlete foot (itchy
between your toes)
living with a fungus. Both
sexual and asexual, Protist
does photosynthesis and
the fungus provides
protection. It breaks down
rocks and helps make the
soil.
-yeast are unicellular.
They reproduce by
budding.
animal
What makes animal an
animal?
1. Motility
2. Multicellular
3. Heterotrophs
4. Diploidy
5. Reproduction
6. Eukaryote
7. No cell walls
How is it relevant to us
humans?
We are the part of animal
kingdom.
We rely on animals for
food, labor, and
companionship.
Scientists can help farmers
to get a better breeding in
order to get a better
product, such as beef,
pork, milk, etc.
When your pet feels sick,
Phylums of Animals:
Porifera (sponges),
cnidarian(jellyfish),
ctenophore(comb jellyfish),
platyhekminthes
(flatworms), Nematoda
(roundsworms), rotifer
(rotifers), mollusca (clams,
snails), annelida (segmented
worms), arthropoda (insects,
crustaceans), Echinodermata
(sea stars, sea urchins),
chordate (vertebrates)
Layers:
Ectoderm is an outer layer of
the skin, nervous system,
spinal cord, sense organs
such as eyes and brains
Endoderm is lining of
digestive tract, respiratory
Formation of Blastula:
Sperm fertilizes egg, forms
haploid cell.
2 haploid cells fuse together,
forming a zygote.
Zygote starts dividing, called
cleaving. This division then
turns into 2 > 4 > 8 > 16 >
then 32 cells.
Once it becomes 32 cells, it’s
called a morula (raspberry
shape).
Then there would be
another layer forming,
making it into a blastula.
you can send them to a
vet to see their illness.
system, urinary system,
digestive organs, liver, man
glands
Mesoderm is most of
skeletons, muscles,
circulatory system,
reproductive organ,
excretory organs.
Protostomes and
Deuterostomes
Protostomes are just group
of animals and together with
the deuterostomes, they
make up the 3 layers and the
bilateral symmetry
This happens during the
embryonic development or
embryogenesis
During gastrulation,
invagination happens, makes
a blastopore. Here it would
become the mouth.
Deuterostomes are similar
with protostomes, but the
only difference is that after
invagination, the blastopore
would become the anus.
Humans are examples of
deuterostomes.
Protostomes:
Arthropods (crabs, insects,
Blastula is taking a break,
then gastrulation takes
place.
Invagination(fold in)
happens, called blastopore.
For animals with one hole
(share both anus and
mouth), it stops here.
For animals with two
separate holes, invagination
continue all the way to the
other end, making a gastrula.
Gastrulation:
Gastrulation is a phase
early in the embryonic
development(also called
embryogenesis) of most
animals, during which the
single-layered blastula is
reorganized into a
trilaminar ("threelayered") structure known
as the gastrula. These
three germ layers are
known as the ectoderm,
mesoderm, and
endoderm.
scorpions), flatworms,
mollusks (snails).
Deuterostomes:
Chordates (humans, dogs,
fish, crocodiles), echinoderm
(starfish)
Ectoderm + Endoderm +
Radial Symmetry =
Diploblast
Ectoderm + Endoderm +
Mesoderm + Bilateral
Symmetry = Triploblast
Body Plan/Symmetry:
Animals with bilateral
Animals have symmetry due symmetry have
to natural selection and their mesoderm
environment.
Sponges are asymmetrical,
or no accurate shape at all.
Marine animals today are
mostly radial symmetry.
Therefore, they depends on
wave currents or they crawl
slowly to move.
Other animals have bilateral
symmetry. They have the
exact same left-half and
right-half.
Bilateral animals developed
to get cephalization, or they
got nerves focused on their
end, or the head. Therefore,
those animals are most often
Animals with radial
symmetry are diploblast
Protostomes AND
Deuterostomes MUST be
Triploblast
Protostomes and
Deuterostomes CANNOT
be Diploblast
Choanoflagellates
Choanoflagellates are freeliving, single-cell and colony
forming eukaryotes found
everywhere in aquatic
environments. There are
active and mobile.
125+ species.
Coelom:
Choanoflagellates must have
existed on the Earth since
the Late Precambrian,
because they are the closest
living protist relatives of the
sponges.
Coelom is just an empty
hollow or cavity that is fluid
in the mesoderm. This holds
body organs to attach to
each other so that they can
be suspended but able to
move freely.
Most vertebrates are
coelomates.
Coelomates are the ones
that has the feature of
coeloms.
Pseudocoelomates are fake
coelomates with loosely
organized organs, and are
protostomes. So they are
invertebrates and
microscopic.
Acoelomates are ones with
no hollow space nor fluid.
The mesoderm tissues hold
their organs in certain
Choanoflagellate-like cells
are also found in other
animal phyla; in organisms
such as flatworms and
rotifers, for instance,
choanoflagellate-like cells
act as excretory organs.
Animals and fungi
demonstrate that
choanoflagellates are closest
relative to animals.
Opisthokont
A group of animal and fungi,
which both of them has
flagella in part of them.
For animals, they got
flagellum for sperms.
places. But the tissues can
squeeze the organs, whereas
fluids will keep them
safe. platyhelminthes
(flatworms, tapeworms etc.),
the cnidarians (jellyfish and
allies), and the ctenophores
(comb jellies) are the
acoelomates, but they do
not need these features,
because all they have to do
is to diffuse gas and get
enough nutrients to live.
Simpler animals like
cnidarians (jellyfish, coral,
etc.) and sponges are
diploblastic and monoblastic
respectively, lacking a
coelom
Pseudocoelomate are
nematodes, rotifers,
kinorhynchans (mud
dragons), nematomorphs
(horsehair worms),
gastrotrichs, loriciferans,
priapulid worms, spinyheaded worms, and
entoprocts.
Formation of coeloms:
Protostomes - Mesoderm
would split up, one
sticking to ectoderm and
one to endoderm. That
makes a cavity.
(Divergent)
Deuterostomes Ectoderm and endoderm
would form small space of
cells and would slowly
come together, to make a
hollow space.
(Convergent)
plants
Do photosynthesis
Eukaryotes
Multicellular
Cellulose cell wall
Indeterminate, open growth
Cuticles- allows plants to live
on land
Reproduce sexually
chlorophyll
Ancestor are protest
One of the closest to green
algae.
Don’t have a cell wall.
Vascular plants:
Vascular bundle
Roots absorb stuff
Can stand straight (xylem)
Vascular tissue includes
xylem and phloem
Phloem moves sugar.
Xylem is moving water up.
Plant cuticle:
Protective layer of a green
aerial parts of a land plant.
Non-vascular plants:
No vascular bundle
Small
Depend on osmosis and
diffusion
Need water for
It is a waxy layer on the
surface of the leafs and
protect against pathogen
and transportation.
Helps prevent uncontrolled
water loss and solutes, and
ingression from pests and
pathogen.
reproduction.
Flowers are reproductive
parts of plants.
Gymnosperms:
Ex: cedars
No fruit, cones
Adapted to dry climate
Needle like leave
Thick cuticle
Depend on pollination of
seed.
Angiosperms:
Ex: crab apple
Flowers and fruits are
reproductive structures.
Have a fruit.
Nutrition for the seed.
Get seed dispersal.
Monocots:
Ex: corn
1 left, cotyledon
Vascular bundle is scaltered.
Germinate with one baby
leaf or cotyledon.
Venation is parallel.
Peddles are in multiples of
three.
Alternation of generation:
Life cycle with both haploid
and diploid parts.
Alternation of generation
(moss):
Gametophytes makes
gametes. The haploid part is
more important. Only nonvascular plant. archegonoum
female sex part. Antherididm
male part of a moss and
fern.
Alternation of generation
(fern):
Different lives in complete
separate life. Prothallamusgametophyte of the fern.
Frond- is the sporophyte.
Evolve from gametophyte
become more important to
equal.
Seed dispersal:
Moving the seeds around.
Wind, bursting, shakers,
water, animal food, drop and
roll, catching a lift.
Pollination:
Pollon
Cross pollination: one flower
Dicots:
EX: magnolia flower
Venation is net like
Ring like vascular bundle
Two cotyledons
Has veins that are brunch
together.
Vascular bundle is gathered.
Peddles are in multiples of 4
or 5.
pollinating the other.
Self pollination: pollinating
of yourself.
Bacteria
Words under autotrophic:
Photoautotrophic bacteria - These are bacteria which manufacture energy by converting light energy into ATP energy.
Chemoautotrophic bacteria- These are bacteria which manufacture organic compounds from inorganic energy sources using carbon
dioxide
Phlyum Cyanobacteria: does photosynthesis
Words under heterotrophic:
Symbiotic bacteria - These are bacteria which live in a mutually beneficial association with other organisms. Such bacteria derive the
essential nutrients from their host organisms and in that process help the host through some of their biological activities.
Parasitic bacteria - These are bacteria which occur in the body of animals and plants, obtaining their organic food from there.
Chemoheterotrophic bacteria- Unable to fix carbon and form their own compounds. Chemoheterotrophs can be chemolithoheterotrophs,
utilizing inorganic energy sources such as sulfur or chemoorganoheterotrophs, utilizing organic energy sources such as carbohydrates,
lipids, and proteins
Chemoorgantroph*=organic
Chemolithotroph*=inorganic
Gram Stain: It is another method of differentiating bacterial species into two large groups: gram positive and gram negative. It refers to how a bacteria
reacts to a gram stain based on the chemical and physical properties of the cell wall. If it takes the initial stain, it will be purple and be considered gram
positive. If it doesn't take the initial stain, it will be pink and gram negative. The difference is the outer casing of the bacteria. A gram positive bacteria will
have a thick layer of peptidoglycan (a sugar-protein shell) that the stain can penetrate. A gram negative bacteria has an outer membrane covering a thin
layer of peptidoglycan on the outside. The outer membrane prevents the initial stain from penetrating. Since whether a bacteria is Gram positive or
negative helps determine the species, characteristics of disease, and treatment of a bacteria, it is very important information.
Binary Fission: Form of asexual reproduction without having to breed with the opposite sex. (Process - A mature bacterium divides into two identical
daughter cells)
Binary fission begins with the single DNA molecule replicating and both copies attaching to the cell membrane.
Next, the cell membrane begins to grow between the two DNA molecules. Once the bacterium just about doubles its original size, the cell membrane begins
to pinch inward.
A cell wall then forms between the two DNA molecules dividing the original cell into two identical daughter cells.
Fragmentation:
Fragmentation is a form of asexual reproduction where a new organism grows from a fragment of the parent. Each fragment develops
into a mature, fully grown individual. (There is one big cell, a small piece falls off, makes a new one. Either small or big.)
Budding:
Some cells split via budding (for example baker's yeast), resulting in a 'mother' and 'daughter' cell. The offspring organism is smaller than
the parent. (Small cell grows on big cell)
Protist:
Mitosis happen in haploid (haploid cycle)
Mitosis happen in diploid (diploid cycle)
Mitosis happen in both (alternation of generation)
Bioremediatiom- using live to fix dirt. Bacteria, fungi, and protist