The Middle Ages in Europe
I.
Important ideas
a. Byzantine Empire: Capital, Constantinople. Lasted almost 1000
years. Emperor Justinian created comprehensive legal code.
b. Western Europe descended into chaos. Tribes set up kingdoms.
Invaders create turmoil. Cities decayed; much ancient learning
was lost.
c. Feudalism: political, economic, and social system. Kings gave land
to nobles in return for service; nobles provided knights. Serfs
worked on self-sufficient manors.
d. Catholic Church, headed by Pope, preserved learning and
emerged as the most powerful institution. St. Augustine
emphasized role of faith; St. Thomas Aquinas believed
Christian teachings compatible with reason and in natural law.
e. Christians and Muslims fought for control of Holy Land during
Crusades; Europeans introduced to new goods & ideas from
Middle East.
II. Byzantine Empire (330-1453)
a. 330 CE: Emperor Constantine moved Roman Empire’s capital
east to Byzantium, renamed Constantinople. Strategic location
on Bosporus (strait linking Black & Mediterranean Seas) and on
land routes connecting Europe to Asia. City surrounded by water
on 3 sides and had thick walls – hard to attack.
b. Byzantine Culture Emerges
i. Saw themselves as continuing the Roman Empire (for 1000
years). Emperors all-powerful, ruling a diverse population.
Most merchants/residents spoke Greek. Government used
first Latin, then Greek.
ii. Eastern Orthodox Christianity: split from the Catholic
Church in 1054 CE. Orthodox Christians did not follow
Pope’s leadership – had a Patriarch. Decorated churches
with icons. Differences: views on Trinity, shape of
crosses...
iii. Reasons for survival of Byzantine Empire as an economic,
cultural, and military force:
iv. Vibrant culture. Church of Hagia Sophia with giant dome
& spires. Schools taught ancient Greek texts. Artists used
precious materials to display classical images and create
icons and mosaics.
v. Early on, Empire ruled over Balkan Peninsula, Middle East,
and parts of Italy. Under Justinian (527-565), conquered
much of old Roman Empire.
vi. Code of Justinian: all existing Roman laws collected and
organized into a code listing all laws and opinions on each
subject. Special laws related to religion; required that
everyone be Eastern Orthodox Christian.
vii. Decline of the Empire
1. Battled Slavs and Avars in north, Persians in east, and
spread of Islam in south. In the 600s, Muslim Arabs
took most of the Empire’s Middle East territory.
2. Further decline: Seljuk Turks from Central Asia
defeated the Byzantine Army in 1071 and took Asia
Minor. Crusaders attacked city in 1204. Italian citystates competed for Mediterranean trade.
Byzantines still controlled Balkans and held on for
another 400 years.
3. By 1440s, continuous attacks from all sides wore
empire down, reduced to a small area around
Constantinople. 1453, Constantinople conquered by
Ottoman Turks.
viii. Influence on Russia
1. Russia emerged as a state in the 9th cen. in forest
lands between the Baltic and Black Seas. Viking
raiders organized Slavs into a kingdom centered in
Kiev (KievanRus – in modern Ukraine). Other cities,
such as Moscow & Novgorod, developed in north.
2. Russia traded with the Byzantines and was introduced
to Orthodox Christianity, the Cyrillic alphabet, and
Byzantine crafts and products.
3. Other Slavic people and Bulgars converted to
Christianity, impacting Eastern Europe.
The Middle Ages in Europe, Continued…
III. Western Europe in Turmoil
a. The Middle Ages: (AKA medieval period) from fall of Rome in
476 AD to the 1400s.
b. The Barbarian Invasions
i. Many Germanic tribes lived outside Rome’s boundaries –
considered barbarians.
ii. 4th cen.: Huns (most famous: Attila) moved from Central
Asia into Europe, forcing Germanic tribes westward and
into the Roman Empire.
iii. Visigoths permitted in. Later, turned on Rome; defeated
Roman army and sacked city in 410 AD. Assisted by
Germanic slaves.
iv. After a period of invasions, Germanic tribes established
their own kingdoms. Angles & Saxons in England; Visigoths
in Spain; Lombards in northern Italy; Franks in Gaul
(France).
v. Constant warfare disrupted trade and travel. Bridges &
roads fell into disrepair; cities and towns were abandoned.
Bandits common. Life became rural and unsafe. Shortages
of food and goods. People gave up interest in learning;
churches and monasteries became the only places people
could read and write.
c. The Rise of the Franks
i. Franks established a large kingdom in what is now France.
Charles Martel helped unify them and won the Battle of
Tours in 732, stopping the advance of Islam from Spain.
ii. 751: his son Pepin seized power and became King of the
Franks. Gained support of Pope. Granted land to nobles in
exchange for knights’ service.
d. The Reign of Charlemagne
i. Pepin’s son Charlemagne became king in 768. Continued
giving land to nobles for promises of service; nobles gave
land to knights for similar service. Peasants gave up rights
to lords for protection, offering services “in kind” –
working on the farms/manors.
ii. Charlemagne’s empire included France, Germany, Holland,
Belgium, and Northern Italy. Capital: Aachen, a center of
learning. Constructed beautiful palace and brought in
scholars for a palace school. (They invented lower-case
letters.)
iii. Pope gave Charlemagne title “Emperor of the Holy Roman
Empire” in 800. Symbolized separateness from Byzantine
Empire and political/religious unity as Christendom.
iv. After his death, sons divided empire.
e. Europe Faces New Threats
i. Additional invaders attacked Europe: Slavs and Magyars
invaded Germany, France, & Italy. Muslims from North
Africa attacked Italy (had already conquered Spain and
failed to take France).
ii. 800-1000: Vikings, warriors and sailors from Scandinavia,
sailed south in search of trade, loot, and land.
iii. Brutally attacked Western Europe’s coasts in longboats,
spreading fear and destruction. Also created new trade
routes and settlements – Danelaw in Northern England,
Normandy in France, and settlements in Sicily.
IV. Feudal Society (800-1400)
a. To protect against violence and provide basic economic needs,
people adopted French system. Kings offered land (a feudum or
fief) in exchange for loyalty/service. Nobleman (vassal) offered
homage (allegiance) to king. Feudalism helped people survive
breakdown of central government and order.
b. Social
i. A strict class structure developed based on control of land
and military power. People born serfs, knights, lords – could
not change social position.
ii. Local lords given land by rulers in exchange for military
service (making them vassals). These lords had their own
small armies of knights – warriors on horseback.
c. Political
i. Leading nobles controlled political life. Built large castles
and had armed knights.
ii. King relied on nobles for his army; nobles often fought
each other or challenged king. Civil wars frequent and
nobles seized more land.
d. Economic
i. Most people lived on manors – included lord’s house and
surrounding lands. (This aspect of feudalism is called
manorialism.) Manors pretty self-sufficient; produced food,
clothing, shelter. Some nobles possessed multiple manors.
ii. Peasant farmers – serfs – gave the lord part of harvest in
exchange for land use and services. Lord protected serfs
from attack. Lord had almost complete power over his
serfs – pass laws, require labor, serve as judge. Serfs
bound to land.
iii. Farming in the Middle Ages
1. Lacked specific knowledge on enriching soil/rotating
crops. Usually cultivated 2/3 and left 1/3 fallow –
three-field system.
2. Farm animals often small. Bad weather & poor harvest
could lead to famine/death.
iv. Peasant Life-Styles
1. Peasant farmers produced food, working long hours.
Others were millers, blacksmiths, and tavern owners.
Focus on agrarian calendar, even Church feasts for
sowing & reaping days.
2. Peasants lived in small towns or farms on manor.
Typical: 2-room cottage built of mud, plastered
branches, & straw, with thatch roof. Dirt floors and
limited furniture. Stacks of straw as beds. Water
came from wells or streams. Poor ventilation. Brought
livestock inside.
e. Women in the Middle Ages
i. Roles determined by Catholic Church and nobility.
Supposed to be obedient to men. Inferior status blamed on
Eve.
ii. Extended families; nobles had large households; related
peasants lived close to one another. Women bore large
numbers of children, but infant mortality was high.
iii. Women’s lifestyles varied by status. Noblewomen spent
time praying and sewing/embroidering. Few were educated.
Among peasants, a close partnership between husband &
wife. Worked side-by-side in fields; ran home and looked
after livestock.
V.
The Age of Faith
a. Roman Catholic Church remained most powerful organization in
Europe. Headed by Pope in Rome – regarded as successor to St.
Peter. Governed with help of cardinals, bishops, and officials.
b. Controlled huge amounts of land. Possessed monasteries,
abbeys, and convents.
VI. Two Christian Thinkers
a. St. Augustine (354-430) lived at time of fall of Rome. Wrote
The City of God, asking why God is letting the barbarians
destroy Rome. Concludes no earthly civilization can last – only
the “City of God” in Heaven is eternal. Our understanding is
limited, so we must put our faith in God, who will reward us in
the afterlife.
b. St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
i. Wrote Summa Theologica, a summary of Christian beliefs.
Wrote at a time when Muslim & Jewish scholars were
studying lost works of Aristotle; some Christians thought
pre-Christian works were valueless. Aquinas showed how
they were compatible with Christianity and said God gave
man reason to explain and interpret the world. Therefore,
trust reason as well as faith.
ii. Believed in “natural law” – universal laws based on reason.
Reason tells us how to “do good and avoid evil.” Use natural
law to evaluate governments – if a human law conflicts with
natural law it is not a law and does not merit obedience.
Believed that citizens had the right to remove rulers who
continually enact unjust laws. Felt a ruler’s power came
from God through the people.
VII. The Crusades
a. Medieval Catholic Church carried out a “holy war” against the
Muslims. Pilgrims had regularly visited holy sites in Jerusalem.
In the 11th cen., the Seljuk Turks took control of the “Holy
Land” and drove out Christian pilgrims.
b. The Call to Free the Holy Land
i. 1095, Pope Urban II received call for help from Byzantine
Empire against threat of Muslim invasion. Urban II called a
holy Crusade – a war to recapture the Holy Land from the
Muslims. Church promised salvation to participants.
ii. “Crusade” meant “war of the cross.” Brought together
rulers and nobles from different parts of Europe. Pilgrims,
wives, and children accompanied the Crusader army. Many
died from hunger/disease on the way. Several Crusades
were fought over the next two centuries. (First: The only
one to recapture Jerusalem. Then it was lost again. None
of the rest re-took it.)
Effects of Crusades:
VIII. The Later Middle Ages
a. During the later Middle Ages, Europe gradually changed.
i. Trade revived with fairs and cities began to grow along
trade routes.
ii. Crusades revived interest in luxury goods from East.
Merchant class arose in towns – organized into guilds.
iii. New inventions: better watermills, windmills, mechanical
clocks. The first universities opened in Bologna and Paris.
iv. 1200s: New artistic style for churches/cathedrals: Gothic.
Pointed arches, spires, stained glass windows. Gave feeling
of being transported to another world.
b. English Political Traditions
i. Magna Carta: 1215: Barons rebelled against taxes and
forced loans. Supported by Church & towns. Forced King
John to sign an agreement promising not to take free men’s
property or imprison free men without following the law.
Magna Carta – Great Charter – guaranteed free men the
right to a jury trial, and forced the king to gain consent of
a council of nobles for new taxes.
ii. Parliament: Later kings summoned nobles and town
representatives to grant taxes. This became Parliament.
They began to demand the right to make laws in exchange
for the taxes.
IX. Chapter Study Cards