BIOLOGY POWERPOINT Midterm Review
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Biology
THE STEPS OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
1.
MAKE AN OBSERVATION
2.
FORM A HYPOTHESIS
a)
A PREDICTION(EDUCATED GUESS?)
3.
TEST THE HYPOTHESIS WITH AN EXPERIMENT
I.
EXPERIMENTS SHOULD HAVE ONLY 2 VARIABLE
II.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE –the thing that YOU change
III.
DEPENDENT VARIABLE- the thing that changes in response
IV.
A CONTROL IS SOMETHING HELD CONSISTENT FOR ALL
4. COLLECT AND ANALYZE DATA
a)
WE USE MATHEMATICAL-QUANTITATIVE DATA
I.
GRAPHS, TABLES AND MEASURES LIKE AVERAGES, MEDIANS..
5. FORM A CONCLUSION
I.
DOES THE DATA SUPPPORT YOUR HYPOTHESIS
6. SHARE YOUR DATA*
I.
EXPERIMENTAL DATA SHOULD BE REPLICABLE
3 LEVELS OF SCIENTIFIC CERTAINTY
1.
A HYPOTHESIS IS THE LOWEST LEVEL
1.
A PREDICTION TO EXPLAIN YOUR OBSERVATION (EDUCATED GUESS?)
2. A THEORY IS A CONSENSUS WITHIN THE SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY
a.
A GENERAL EXPLANATION FOR A BROAD RANGE OF DATA
b.
USES DATA FROM A VARIETY OF SOURCES FOR SUPPORT
c.
EXAMPLE –THE EXTINCTION OF DINOSAURS
3. A LAW HAS NO SIGNIFICANT DATA TO OPPOSE IT
a.
DOES THE DATA SUPPPORT YOUR HYPOTHESIS
b.
EXAMPLE – E = mc2
THE BRACHES OF BIOLOGY –BIOLOGY IS THE THE STUDY OF ORGANISMS
FOR EACH BRANCH OF BIOLOGY WE STUDY HOW ORGANISMS..
1.
ECOLOGY – INTERRACT WITH THE ENVIRONMENT
2.
CELL BIOLOGY- CELLS AND THEIR STRUCTURES
3.
GENETICS – HOW TRAITS ARE INHERITED OR HEREDITY
4.
BIOCHEMISTRY- CHEMISTRYOF LIFE OR METABOLIC PROCESSES
5.
EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY –HOW LIFE EVOLVES
6.
MICROBIOLOGY – MICROSCOPIC ORGANISMS
7.
BOTANY - PLANTS
8.
ZOOLOGY – ANIMALS
9.
PHYSIOLOGY – HUMAN BODY
THE 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
AN ORGANISM: IS A LIVING THING CAPABLE OF CARRYING ON ALL THE PROCESS OF LIFE
ALL ORGANISMS SHARE THE FOLLOWING TRAITS…
1.
CELLULAR ORGANIZATION
5.
REPRODUCTION
2.
HOMEOSTASIS
6.
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
3.
HEREDITY
7.
METABOLISM
4.
RESPONSIVENESS
THE 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE:
ALL ORGANISMS SHARE THE FOLLOWING TRAITS…
1. CELLULAR ORGANIZATION
a)
ORGANISMS ARE EITHER UNICELLULAR OF MULTICELLULAR
I.
UNICELLULAR -1 CELLED
II.
MULTICELLULAR – MORE THAN 1 CELL
b)
THEY ARE PROKARYOTIC OR EUKARYOTIC
I.
PROKARYOTIC –LACK A NUCLEUS OR ORGANELLES
II.
EUKARYOTIC – HAVE NULCEUS AND ORGANELLES
2. HOMEOSTASIS
1.
THE ABILITY TO MAINTAIN A STABLE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
2.
EXAMPLE –THERMOREGULATION, BLOOD PRESSURE, BLOOD GLUCOSE…..
3. HEREDITY
1.
ORGANISMS PASS THEIR TRAITS TO THEIR OFFSPRING
1.
THEY USE THE MOLECULE DNA ORGANIZED IN CHROMOSOMES
2.
THESE INHERITED TRAITS CHANGE OVER TIME – EVOLVE
1.
SPECIES TRAITS ARE ENCODED IN DNA WHICH CHANGES
4. RESPONSIVENESS
1.
ORGANISMS RESPOND TO THE ENVIRONMENT
1.
INDIVIDUALS RESPOND WITH BEHAVIORS
2.
SPECIES RESPOND BY EVOLVING
5. REPRODUCTION
a.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
1)
THE EXCHANGE AND COMBINATION OF DNA
2)
SEX CELLS (GAMETES)COMBINE TO FORM NEW INDIVIDUALS
b.
3)
HIGH LEVEL OF VARIATIONS
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
1)
THE REPLICATION OF PARENTS TO FORM DAUGHTER CELL
2)
OFFSPRING IDENTICAL TO PARENTS
3)
EXAMPLE –BINARY FISSION
6. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
a)
ORGANISM GROW BY MITOSIS
b)
ORGANISMS DEVELOP THROUGH CELLULAR DIFFERENTIATION
7. METABOLISM
1.
2.
THE SUM OF ALL CHEMICAL REACTIONS
IN LIVING SYSTEMS THE CARBON CYCLE IS THE
a)
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
I.
CO2 + H2O --- C6H12O6 + O2
b)
CELL RESPIRATION
I.
C6H12O6 + O2 --- CO2 + H2O
FUNDAMENTAL PROCESS
CHAPTER 18 CLASSIFICATION
THE CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS
1.
TAXONOMY -THE SCIENCE OF CLASSIFYING ORGANISMS
a)
CARL LINNAEUS-THE FATHER OF MODERN TAXONOMY
b)
BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE –SCIENTIFIC NAME
I.
A 2 NAME SYSTEM
II.
Genus species or Genus species
III.
SCIENTIFIC NAMES ARE GIVEN IN LATIN
c)
CLADISTICS IS THE ORGANIZATION OF ORGANISMS ON THE BASIS OF SHARED TRAITS
I.
WE CAN USE A CLADOGRAM TO LINK RELATED ORGANISMS
1.
TAXONOMY -THE 3 DOMAIN SYSTEM
a)
ORGANISMS ARE IDENTIFIED BY CHARACTERISTICS
I.
ARCHAEBACTERIA- ANCIENT BACTERIA-EXTREMOPHILES
II.
BACTERIA- STREPTOCOCCUS, STAPHYLOCOCCOUS
III.
EUKARYA- PROTISTA, FUNGI, PLANTAE, ANIMALIA
THE CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS
1.
7 LEVELS OF THE MODERN TAXONOMY
a)
DOMAIN
b)
KINGDOM
c)
PHYLUM
d)
CLASS
e)
ORDER
f)
FAMILY
g)
GENUS
h)
SPECIES
i)
1.
THE HUMAN CLASSIFICATION
a)
DOMAIN – EUKARYA
b)
KINGDOM - ANIMALIA
c)
PHYLUM - CHORDATA
d)
CLASS - MAMMALIA
e)
ORDER - PRIMATE
f)
FAMILY - HOMINIDAE
g)
GENUS - HOMO
h)
SPECIES - SAPIENS
CHAPTER 3 CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
1.
MATTER-IS COMPOSED OF ATOMS
a)
ATOMS ARE COMPOSED OF SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
I.
PROTON
a)
FOUND IN THE NUCLEUS
b)
POSITVE CHARGE +1
c)
MASS IS 1 ATOMIC MASS UNIT (AMU)
II.
NEUTRON
a)
FOUND IN THE NUCLEUS
b)
NEUTRAL CHARGE
c)
MASS IS 1.01 ATOMIC MASS UNIT (AMU)
III.
ELECTRON
a)
FOUND IN THE ORBITAL ENERGY SHELLS
b)
NEGATIVE CHARGE -1
c)
MASS IS 0.01 ATOMIC MASS UNIT (AMU)
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
1.
AN ELEMENT IS A TYPE OF ATOM
a)
AN ELEMENT IS SUBSTANCE MADE UP OF THE SAME TYPE OF ATOMS
I.
ELEMENTS OF THE SAME SUBSTANCE HAVE THE SAME NUMBER OF PROTONS GIVEN BY THE
ATOMIC NUMBER
a)
CARBON 6
b)
OXYGEN 8
c)
HYDROGEN 1
II.
SOME ATOMES OF THE SAME SUBSTANCE MAY HAVE DIFFERENT NUMBERS OF NEUTRON
a)
CARBON12 -6 PROTONS
6 NEUTRON
b)
CARBON14 -6 PROTONS
8 NEUTRON
c)
THEY ARE CALLED ISOTOPES OF CARBON
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
THE PERIODIC TABLE ORGANIZES ALL ATOMS
ITS CONTAINS THE FOLLOWING FOR EACH ELEMENT
a)
CHEMICAL SYMBOL
I.
AN ABBREVIATION OF AN ATOMS NAME
a)
C-CARBON, H-HYDROGEN
b)
SOME ARE UNUSUAL Na- Sodium, K-Potassium
b)
ATOMIC NUMBER
I.
AN ATOMS PROTON NUMBER
a)
CARBON HAS 6 PROTONS –ATOMIC NUMBER 6
b)
HYDROGEN HAS 1 PROTON – ATOMIC NUMBER 1
c)
ATOMIC MASS
I.
THE COMBINATION OF THE MASS OF PROTONS AND NEUTRONS
a)
CARBON – 6 PROTONS + 6 NEUTRON = ATOMIC MASS 12
b)
SOME ARE UNUSUAL Na- Sodium, K-Potassium
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
1.
CHEMICAL BONDS – ATOMS COMBINE
THERE ARE 3 IMPORTANT BONDS
a)
COVALENT BOND
I.
BASED ON THE SHARING OF ELECTRONS
a)
FORM MOLECULES
b)
DRIVEN BY THE OCTET RULE- WHICH STATES “MOST ATOMS REQUIRE 8 ELECTRONS
IN THE OUTERMOST ORBITAL SHELL-(VALENCE SHELL)
c)
EXAMPLES INCLUDE CO2 , C6H12O6, O2
b)
IONIC BONDS
I.
BASED ON THE DONATION OR ACCEPTANCE OF ELECTRONS
a)
FORM IONIC COMPOUNDS
b)
ATTRACTIONS BETWEEN CHARGED ATOMS CALLED IONS
c)
DRIVEN BY THE ELECTRONEGATIVITY OF AN ELEMENT
d)
EXAMPLES INCLUDE NaCl, NaOH, HCl
c)
HYDROGEN BONDS
I.
BASED ON ATTRACTIONS BETWEEN H+ ATOMS AND OXYGEN
a)
IMPORTANT IN WATER, DNA , & PROTEIN STRUCTURE
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
WATER - LIFE IS DEPENDENT UPON THE CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER
a)
WATER IS A POLAR MOLECULE
I.
IT IS A MOLECULE WITH IONIC CHARACTER
a)
OXYGEN IN WATER CARRIES A PARTIAL (-) CHARGE
b)
HYDROGENS IN WATER CARRIES A PARTIAL (+) CHARGE
c)
ADJACENT MOLECULES ARE ATTRACTED TO ONE ANOTHER
b)
LIQUID WATER IS LESS DENSE THAN SOLID WATER
I.
ICE FLOATS
a)
FLOATING ICE PREVENTS LAKES AND OCEANS FROM FREEZING COMPLETELY AND
ALLOWS ORGANISMS TO LIVE IN COLD CONDITIONS
b)
ATTRACTIONS BETWEEN CHARGED ATOMS CALLED IONS
c)
DRIVEN BY THE ELECTRONEGATIVITY OF AN ELEMENT
d)
EXAMPLES INCLUDE NaCl, NaOH, HCl
c)
WATER IS STICKY
I.
IT IS BOTH ADHESIVE AND COHESIVE
a)
COHESION WATER STICKS TO ITS SELF
b)
ADHESIONWATER STICKS TO OTHER POLAR MOLECULES
d)
WATER IS THE UNIVERSAL SOLVENT
I.
IT DISSOLVES POLAR MOLECULES
WATER –THE UNIVERSAL SOLVENT
a)
A SOLUTION CONTAINS BOTH A SOLVENT AND SOLUTE
I.
A SOLUTE IS THE SOLID DISSOLVED IN SOLUTION
II.
THE SOLVENT IS THE LIQUID COMPONENT OF A SOLUTION
a)
POLAR SOLVENTS DISSOLVE POLAR COMPOUNDS
a)
EXAMPLE WATER AND SUGAR
b)
NON-POLAR SOLVENTS DISSOLVE NON-POLAR COMPOUNDS
a)
EXAMPLE GASOLINE AND OIL
c)
SOLUTIONS WHERE WATER IS THE SOLVENT ARE CALLED AQUAEOUS
a)
ACIDS AND BASES ARE AQUAEOUS SOLUTIONS
b)
THE pH scale measures H+ ion concentration
I.
ACIDS –LOW pH
a)
H+ DONORS
b)
EXAMPLES INCLUDE LEMON JUICE, HCl
II.
BASES - HIGH pH
a)
H+ ACCEPTORS
b)
EXAMPLES INCLUDE, NaOH, OVEN CLEANER, LYE, AMMONIA
BUFFERS – IONIC COMPOUNDS IN LIVING SYSTEMS
a)
NEUTRALIZE ACIDS AND BASES
b)
AN IMPORTANT EXAMPLE OF HOMEOSTASIS
c)
THEY CAN ACT AS H+ DONORS OR ACCEPTORS
d)
YOU HAVE BUFFERS IN YOUR BLOOD THAT ALLOW YOU TO MAINTAIN CONSTANT pH
e)
ANTACIDS ARE EXAMPLES
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
BIOCHEMISTRY- THERE ARE 4 MAJOR CLASSES OF BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE MOLECULES
a)
CARBOHYDRATES (SUGARS OR SACCHARIDES)
I.
OFTEN POLYMERS OF GLUCOSE
II.
THE MAJOR AND 1ST SOURCE OF ENERGY IN LIVING THINGS
b)
LIPIDS (FATS)
I.
ARE THE MOST DENSE ENERGY STORAGE MOLECULES
II.
FORM ALL CELL MEMBRANES
c)
PROTEINS
I.
POLYMERS OF AMINO ACIDS JOINED BY PEPTIDE BONDS
II.
ALL ENZYMES ARE PROTEIN
d)
NUCLEIC ACIDS
I.
FOUND IN THE NUCLEUS AS DNA OR RNA
II.
POLYMERS OF NUCLEOTIDES
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
CARBOHYDRATES
I.
COMMONLY CALLED SUGARS OR SACCHARIDES (-OSEs)
II.
CAN BE FOUND AS MONO, DI, OR POLYSACCHARIDES
a)
MONOSACCHARIDE- GLUCOSE
b)
DISACCHARIDE- SUCROSE, LACTOSE
c)
POLYSACCHARIDE- STARCH, CELLULOSE, GLYCOGEN
III.
THE 1ST SOURCE OF ENERGY IN LIVING THINGS
IV.
FORM STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS IN ORGANISM LIKE THE CELL WALL
a)
WOOD IS CELLULOSE
b)
A BUGS SHELL IS MADE OF CHITIN
LIPIDS
I.
POLYMERS OF FATTY ACIDS
II.
ARE USED FOR LONG TERM ENERGY STORAGE
a)
EXAMPLES CHOLESTEROL
III.
FORM ALL CELL MEMBRANES
a)
PHOSPHOLIPID
b)
PREVENTS THE MOVEMENT OF H2O IN OR OUT OF THE CELL
IV.
ACT AS HORMONES
a)
TESTOSTERONE & ESTROGEN
PROTEINS
a)
POLYMERS OF AMINO ACIDS JOINED BY PEPTIDE BONDS
b)
ALL ENZYMES ARE PROTEIN
c)
PROTEINS HAVE IMPORTANT ROLES AS
I.
ENZYMES
(-ASEs) EXAMPLE AMYLASE, HYDROLASE, ATPase
II.
HORMONES- like INSULIN, SEROTONIN
III.
STRUCTUAL ELEMENTS- KERATIN, COLLAGEN
NUCLEIC ACIDS
I.
CARRY HEREDITARY INFORMATION IN THE FORM OF GENES
II.
FOUND IN THE NUCLEUS
a)
FORMS AN ALPHA DOUBLE HELIX
III.
POLYMERS OF NUCLEOTIDES
a)
CONTAIN A SUGAR –RIBOSE OR DEOXYRIBOSE
b)
NITROGENOUS BASE
c)
PHOSPHATE GROUP
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
MATTER AND ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS
1.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS ARE SYMBOLIZED IN EQUATIONS
REACTANTS------PRODUCTS
A + B -------------- C + D
1.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS STORE AND RELEASE ENERGY
a)
ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS–NEED ENERGY TO PROCEED
b)
EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS – GIVE OFF ENERGY AS THEY PROCEED
2.
ACTIVATION ENERGY IS REQUIRED FOR A CHEMICAL REACTION TO PROCEED
3.
ENZYMES ARE BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS THAT LOWER ACTIVATION ENERGY
a)
THIS SPEED CHEMICAL REACTIONS
b)
THIS ALLOWS THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS NECESSARY FOR LIFE
ENZYMES ARE BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS ACTIVATION ENERGY IS REQUIRED FOR A CHEMICAL REACTION TO PROCEED
ENZYMES ARE BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS
1.
ENZYMES ARE PROTEINS WITH A SPECIFIC 3DIMENSIONAL STRUCTURE
2.
ENZYMES LOWER ACTIVATION ENRGY BY BINDING SUBSTRATES AT THEIR ACTIVE SITES
3.
ENZYMES CATALYZE REACTIONS WITHOUT BEING CHANGED OR USED UP
4.
ENZYME ACTIVITY CAN BE INFLUENCED BY THE ENVRONMENT
a)
CHANGES IN pH
b)
CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE
c)
CHANGES IN ENZYME OR SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION
CHAPTER 7 CELLULAR STRUCTURE
THE DISCOVERY OF CELLS
1.
(1665) ROBERT HOOK: “CELLS”
2.
(1695) ANTON VON LEEUWENHOEK: “ANIMACULES”
3.
SCHLIEDEN: PLANTS ARE MADE OF CELLS
4.
SCHWANN: ANIMALS ARE MADE OF CELLS
5.
VIRCHOW: ALL CELLS COME FROM PREXISTING CELLS
CHAPTER 7 CELLULAR STRUCTURE
THE CELL THEORY
1.
ALL LIVING THINGS ARE MADE OF ONE OR MORE CELLS”
2.
CELLS ARE THE BASIC UNIT OF STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
3.
ALL CELLS COME FROM PREXISTING CELLS
CELL BIOLOGISTS USE MICROSCOPES
1.
THIS IS A COMPOUND LIGHT MICROSCOPE
1.
COMPOUND DUE TO MULTIPLE LENSES
2.
LIGHT MUST PASS THROUGH THE OBJECT BEING OBSERVED
3.
THE EYEPIECE OR OCULAR LENS IS ON TOP
4.
THE OBJECTIVE LENSES ARE DOWN NEAR THE OBJECT
OTHER TYPES OF MICROSCOPES
1.
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
a)
GIVES EXTREMELY HIGH MAGNIFICATION AND RESOLUTION
2.
SCANNING TUNNELING MICROSCOPE
a)
GIVES EXTREMELY HIGH MAGNIFICATION AND 3D IMAGES
CELL SIZE AND SHAPE
1.
A High surface to Volume ratio
2.
THE Greater the SURFACE AREA, more stuff gets in and out of cell
3.
Greater the VOLUME, less stuff gets in or out; cell starves or is poisoned
4.
Cell size varies with function
CELL STRUCTURE
3 MAJOR PARTS OF CELL
1.
PLASMA MEMBRANE:
a)
CONTROLS PASSAGE OF MATERIALS IN OR OUT OF CELL
2.
NUCLEAR REGION:
a)
CONTROLS CELLS ACTIVITIES;
b)
CONTAINS DNA & RNA
3.
CYTOPLASM :
a)
ORGANELLES AND CYTOSOL
INTERNAL ORGANIZATION & TYPES OF CELLS
1.
EACH CELL CONTAINS “LITTLE ORGANS” CALLED ORGANELLES
2.
EACH ORGANELLE PERFORMS SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS FOR THE CELL
3.
EUKARYOTIC CELLS: CELLS WITH A NUCLEUS AND OUTER CELL MEMBRANE WHICH ALLOWS MOLECULES TO
PASS IN AND OUT
4.
PROKARYOTIC CELLS: CELLS WITHOUT A NUCLEUS OR OTHER ORGANELLES
ORGANIZATION OF CELLS
1.
CELLS ARE ORGANIZED INTO TISSUES
a.
NERVE TISSUE IS COMPOSED OF ASTROCYTES AND NEURONS
b.
TISSUES ARE ORGANIZED INTO ORGANS
c.
THE HEART IS MADE OF MUSCLE AND CONNECTIVE TISSUE
d.
ORGANS ARE ORGANIZED INTO ORGAN SYSTEMS
e.
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM INCLUDES THE LUNGS, TRACHEA, NASAL PASSAGES, DIAPHRAGM MUSCLE
AND BLOOD VESSELS
f.
ORGANS SYSTEMS ARE ORGANIZED INTO AN ORGANISM
g.
WE ARE COMPOSED OF OUR BODY SYSTEMS INCLUDING;CARDIOVASCULAR, RPRODUCTIVE, DIGESTIVE,
NERVOUS…ETC.
PLANT & ANIMAL CELL ORGANELLES
1.
CYTOPLASM
a)
ALL THE AREA BETWEEN THE CELL MEMBRANE AND THE NUCLEUS AND CONTAINS ALL OF THE
ORGANELLES WITHIN THE CELL
b)
RIBOSOMES
c)
MAKE PROTEINS FROM AA; FOUND ON ER OR IN CYTOSOL
d)
MADE IN THE NUCLEOLUS OF RRNA
e)
ROUGH ER
f)
MAKES PROTEINS AND TRANSPORTS THEM TO OTHER PARTS OF THE CELL VIA VESICLES (LITTLE
PACKAGES)
2.
RIBOSOMES
a)
MAKE PROTEINS FROM AMINO ACIDS (AA);
b)
SYNTHESIZED IN NUCLEOLUS
c)
FOUND ON ER OR IN CYTOSOL.
ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER) –
a)
MAKES PROTEINS AND TRANSPORTS THEM TO OTHER PARTS OF THE CELLS VIA VESICLES
4. SMOOTH ER
a)
TRANSPORTS PROTEINS
b)
SYNTHESIZES LIPIDS
5. GOLGI APPARATUS
a)
FOUND CLOSE TO ER.
b)
TAKES PROTEIN FROM ER AND MODIFIES THEM TO MAKE THEM WORK;
c)
SENDS THEM ON THEIR WAY (MAILROOM OF THE CELL)
6. MITOCHONDRION
a)
POWERHOUSE OF THE CELL. TAKES IN FOOD; CONVERTS IT TO ATP, WHICH IS BROKEN DOWN FOR
ENERGY.
b)
SOME CELLS HAVE MORE MITOCHONDRIA THAN OTHERS
c)
CRISTAE: FOLDS IN THE INNER MEMBRANE OF MITOCHONDRIA TO INCREASE SURFACE AREA
7. NUCLEUS
a)
CONTROLS AND COORDINATES CELL’S ACTIVITIES. CONTAINS CHROMATIN (DNA). DNA CONVERTED TO
RNA AND STORED IN NUCLEOLUS. RNA SENT OUT TO CELL AS A MESSENGER
b)
SURROUNDED BY NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
c)
NUCLEAR PORES ALLOW RNA TO LEAVE NUCLEUS
8. CYTOSKELETON: SCAFFOLDING THAT GIVES CELL SHAPE
a)
MICROFILAMENTS: USED FOR MUSCLE CONTRACTION
b)
MICROTUBULES: THICKER, MOVE ORGANELLES
c)
CILIA AND FLAGELLA
I.
HELP SOME CELLS MOVE AROUND
II.
LINING OF RESPIRATORY TRACT
9. LYSOSOMES:
a)
CONTAIN DIGESTIVE ENZYMES
b)
BREAKS DOWN GLUCOSE
c)
CAN RUPTURE AND KILL CELL
3.
CHAPTER 8 CELLULAR TRANSPORT
STRUCTURE OF PLASMA MEMBRANE
1
SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE  ALLOWS SOME MOLECULES IN; KEEPS OTHERS OUT
2
PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER POLAR HEADS ON OUTSIDE AND INSIDE OF CELL; NONPOLAR TAILS ON INSIDE OF
MEMBRANE
3
POLAR = HYDROPHILIC = WATER LOVING
4
NONPOLAR = HYDROPHOBIC = WATER HATING
MOLECULES ON THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
CARBOHYDRATES  ACT AS RECEPTORS; MOLECULES ATTACH TO CELL; TELL IT WHAT TO DO
CHOLESTEROL  GIVES MEMBRANE SHAPE; RIGIDITY
RECEPTOR PROTEINS  BIND HORMONES & OTHER SUBSTANCES COMING IN FROM OUTSIDE THE CELL
RECOGNITION PROTEINS  PROTEINS ON MEMBRANE THAT ARE USED FOR RECOGNITION BY EXTRA-CELLULAR
SUBSTANCES
ADHESION PROTEINS  HELP CELLS OF A CERTAIN TYPE STICK TOGETHER TO FORM TISSUES
WHAT GETS IN AND OUT OF THE CELL MEMBRANE?
HOW DO SOME SUBSTANCES PASS THROUGH THE MEMBRANE WHILE OTHERS STAY OUT?
MATERIALS MOVES ACROSS THE MEMBRANE IN TWO WAYS
1. PASSIVE TRANSPORT
2. ACTIVE TRANSPORT
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
DIFFUSION  MOVEMENT OF MOLECULES FROM HIGH TO LOW CONCENTRATION
OXYGEN, CO2, FAT SOLUBLE MOLECULES, AND WATER PASS THROUGH THE MEMBRANE BY DIFFUSION
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
ACTIVE TRANSPORT  USING ENERGY TO TRANSPORT LARGE MOLECULES INTO THE CELL AGAINST THEIR
CONCENTRATION GRADIENTS
1. CELL MEMBRANE PUMPS  CARRIER PROTEINS PUMP IONS AGAINST THEIR CONCENTRATION GRADIENT
2. ENDOCYTOSIS  ENGULFING OF LARGE PARTICLES OR LIQUIDS BY PLASMA MEMBRANE
CELLS TAKE IN CHOLESTEROL BY ENDOCYTOSIS FROM BLOODSTREAM
PINOCYTOSIS  ENDOCYTOSIS OF LIQUID
3. EXOCYTOSIS  VESICLE CONTENTS EXPELLED BY CELL
PROTEINS ARE TRANSPORTED BY EXOCYTOSIS
EXOCYTOSIS ANIMATION
ENDOCYTOSIS ANIMATION
OSMOSIS
OSMOSIS  DIFFUSION OF WATER
ISOTONIC SOLUTION CELLS ARE AT EQUILIBRIUM; NO NET MOVEMENT OF WATER
HYPERTONIC SOLUTION  CELL IS IN A SOLUTION THAT HAS LOTS OF SALTS OR OTHER IONS IN IT; WATER RUSHES OUT
OF THE CELL AND THE CELL SHRINKS
HYPOTONIC SOLUTION CELL IS IN A SOLUTION THAT HAS LITTLE OR NO SALTS OR OTHER IONS IN IT; WATER RUSHES
INTO THE CELL AND THE CELL SWELLS
BIOLOGY CH9 CELLULAR RESPIRATION & PHOTOSYNTHESIS
PHOTOSYNTHESIS & CELLULAR RESPIRATION
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
+ SUNLIGHT
CO2 + H20 C6H12O6 +
O2
THE BASIC EQUATIONS
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
C6H12O6 + O2  CO2 + H20
+ ATP
OCCURS IN THE CHLOROPLAST OF AUTOTROPHS
OCCURS IN THE MITOCHONDRIA OF ALL CELLS*
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
+ SUNLIGHT
CO2 + H20  C6H12O6 +
O2
OCCURS IN THE CHLOROPLAST OF AUTOTROPHS
HAS BOTH LIGHT AND DARK REACTIONS
The LIGHT Reactions
+ SUNLIGHT
CO2 + H20  C6H12O6 + O2
OCCURS IN THE THYLAKOIDS OF CHLOROPLAST
LIGHT REACTIONS- Use light to split H20, make O2, and a Hydrogen Ion gradient which makes ATP and NADPH
Also known as the LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTIONS
The DARK Reactions
+ ATP + NADPH
CO2 + H20 
C6H12O6 + O2
OCCURS IN THE STROMA OF CHLOROPLAST
The Dark Reactions/Calvin Cycle:
Use CO2 , (+ ATP + NADPH) to make C6H12O6 !!!
Also known as the LIGHT INDEPENDENT REACTIONS AND OR CALVIN CYCLE!!
CELLULAR RESPIRATION OVERVIEW
ALL CELLS
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
Has a few Reactions
Glycolysis
The Krebs/TCA/Citric Acid Cycle
The Electron Transport Chain
C6H12O6 + O2
CELLULAR RESPIRATION: Glycolysis
GLYCOLYSIS
C6H12O6 + O2  2ATP + H2O + 2Pyruvate OCCURS
IN THE CYTOPLASM!!!
NOT MITOCHONDRIA

CO2 + H20 + ATP
OCCURS IN THE MITOCHONDRIA OF
OR Fermentation (if there’s no O2 available)
And 2 Major Pathways
Aerobic Reactions – use O2
Anaerobic Reactions – Doesn't use O2
ANAEROBIC REACTION -Doesn’t Use O2
In Short: Step 1
Glycolysis (glucose-lysis)
C6H12O62Pyruvate + H2O +2ATP
CELLULAR RESPIRATION: THE KREBS CYCLE(*aka. TCA/Citric Acid Cycle)
2 Pyruvate + O2  2ATP + CO2 +2NADH + 2FADH2
AEROBIC REACTION –USES O2
OCCURS IN THE MATRIX of MITOCHONDRIA
In Short: Step 2 The Krebs/TCA Cycle
2 Pyruvate CO2 + 2ATP + 2NADH + 2FADH2
CELLULAR RESPIRATION:
The ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
The Electron Transport Chain
2NADH+ 2FADH2  H20 + 32-34 ATP
OCCURS ON THE CRISTAE OF THE MITOCHONDRIA
Uses a Hydrogen Ion gradient to make ATP!
In Short: Step 3
The Electron Transport Chain
2NADH + 2FADH2  H20 + 32-34ATP
CELLULAR RESPIRATION: if there’s no O2 Organisms use Glycolysis then Fermentation!!
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION- AKA- FERMENTATION 2 TYPES
In Animals
In Short: Under Anaerobic Conditons
2 Pyruvate  + 2ATP + Lactic Acid
Step 1: Glycolysis
In Yeast
Step 2: Fermentation
2 Pyruvate  + 2ATP + Ethanol
CHAPTER 10-11 CELL DIVISION
WHY DO CELLS DIVIDE?
1.
THEY HAVE GROWN TOO LARGE SO…. THE SURFACE AREA/VOLUME RATIO IS TOO SMALL
2.
TO ALLOW AN ORGANISM TO GROW AND INCREASE ITS SIZE
3.
CELLS HAVE DIED AND NEED TO BE REPLACED
DNA IN THE CELL
INSIDE THE NUCLEUS DNA CONDENSES TO FORM CHROMOSOMES
CHROMOSOMES ARE MADE FROM PROTEINS CALLED HISTONES AND DNA TOGETHER KNOWN AS CHROMATIN
CHROMATIN ALLOWS DNA TO COIL INTO NUCLEOSOMES
EACH CHROMOSOME CONSISTS OF IDENTICAL HALVES CALLED SISTER CHROMATIDS
SISTER CHROMATIDS ARE JOINED TOGETHER AT THE CENTROMERE
NUMBER & TYPES OF CHROMOSOMES
SEX CHROMOSOMES DETERMINE THE GENDER OF AN ORGANISM
XX = FEMALE
XY = MALE
DIPLOID CELLS: CELLS WITH 2 COPIES OF EACH CHROMOSOME
THE NORMAL BODY CELLS ARE CALLED SOMATIC CELLS, AND THEY ARE ALL DIPLOID
DIPLOID & HAPLOID CELLS
CELL DIVISION IN PROKARYOTES
PROKARYOTIC ORGANISMS: AUNICELLULAR BACTERIA WITH NO NUCLEUS OR MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLES
THEIR DNA IS FOUND AS ONE CIRCULAR CHROMOSOME
THEIR CELLS REPRODUCE THROUGH BINARY FISSION DNA IS REPLICATED, CELL DOUBLES IN SIZE AND SPLITS
STAGES OF MITOSIS
PROPHASE
CHROMATIN CONDENSES & NUCLEUS DISAPPEARS
SPINDLE FIBERS (MICROTUBULES) FORM & MOVE CHROMOSOMES
CENTROSOMES BEGIN TO MIGRATE
METAPHASE
SPINDLES ALIGN CHROMOSOMES IN THE MIDDLE OF THE CELL AKA METAPHASE PLATE
ANAPHASE
CENTROMERES ARE PULLED APART BY SPINDLE FIBERS AND SISTER CHROMATIDS SPLIT
CHROMATIDS MOVE TOWARD OPPOSITE POLES
TELOPHASE
CHROMOSOMES ARRIVE AT OPPOSITE ENDS OF CELL
NUCLEUS REAPPEARS
SPINDLE DISAPPEARS
CYTOKINESIS
CELL SPLITS TO FORM 2 NEW DAUGHTER CELLS
STAGES OF MITOSIS
CYTOKINESIS - PLANT VS. ANIMAL CELLS
IN ANIMAL CELLS: A CLEAVAGE FURROW PINCHES ONE CELL INTO 2 CELLS
MEIOSIS
GETTING FROM DIPLOID TO HAPLOID CELLS: MEIOSIS
WHERE DOES IT OCCUR IN HUMANS?
MALES: TESTES
FEMALES: OVARIES
MEIOSIS OVERVIEW
MEIOSIS I
MEIOSIS II
1 DIPLOID * CELL SPLITS INTO 2 HAPLOID CELLS
2HAPLOID DAUGHTER CELLS UNDERGO MITOSIS
FFORMS 4 HAPLOID SEX CELLS
SSAME AS MITOSIS
MEIOSIS I
PROPHASE I
HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES PAIR TOGETHER A PROCESS CALLED SYNAPSIS
EACH HOMOLOGOUS PAIR OF CHROMOSOMES IS CALLED A TETRAD
PORTIONS OF CHROMATIDS BREAK OFF AND ATTACH TO ADJACENT HOMOLOGOUS CHROMATIDS THIS PROCESS IS KNOWN AS
CROSSING OVER
CROSSING OVER CREATES NEW GENE COMBINATIONS – THE CHROMOSOMES OF YOUR SEX CELLS ARE COMBINATIONS OF BOTH
YOUR MOM AND DADS!!!
METAPHASE I
HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES LINE UP IN THE MIDDLE OF THE CELL
ANAPHASE I
HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES MOVE TO OPPOSITE POLES OF THE CELL
RANDOM SEPARATION OF HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES IS CALLED INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT
TELOPHASE I
CHROMOSOMES REACH OPPOSITE POLES OF THE CELL
CYTOKINESIS BEGINS
MEIOSIS I
MEIOSIS II
2 HAPLOID CELLS GO THROUGH THE PROCESS OF MITOSIS & CELL DIVISION
THE RESULT OF MEIOSIS II IS 4 HAPLOID CELLS
GAMETE FORMATION
IN MALES MEIOSIS CREATES 4 SPERM CELLS (CALLED SPERMATIDS)
IN FEMALES THE CYTOPLASM IS UNEVENLY DIVIDED SO THAT ONLY 1 BIG CELL THE OVUM IS FORMED, ALONG WITH 3 OTHER CELLS
KNOWN AS POLAR BODIES
MEIOSIS II
MEIOSIS VOCABULARY
•
DIPLOID CELLS  CELLS WITH 2 OF EACH TYPE OF CHROMOSOME (1 FROM MOM AND 1 FROM DAD)
•
N= NUMBER OF PAIRS OF CHROMOSOMES
•
DIPLOID CELLS = 2N
•
ZYGOTE = FERTILIZED EGG
•
GAMETES= HAPLOID SEX CELLS
•
FERTILIZATION= UNION OF EGG AND SPERM
•
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION  PARENTS GENERATE SPECIALIZED SEX CELLS