QUESTION FORMATION IN UNEME
KOLAWOLE MICHEAL DARE
07/15CB066
A LONG ESSAY SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS
AND NIGERIAN LANGUAGES, FACULTY OF ARTS, UNIVERSITY OF
ILORIN, ILORIN, NIGERIA
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE
OF BACHELOR OF ARTS (HONS) IN LINGUISTICS
JUNE, 2011.
1
CERTIFICATION
This essay has been read and approved as meeting the requirements of the
Department of Linguistics and Nigerian Languages, University of Ilorin, Ilorin,
Nigeria.
______________________________
MR. S. A. AJE
_______________________
SIGNATURE/DATE
______________________________
PROF. A. S. ABDUSSALAM
_______________________
SIGNATURE/DATE
______________________________
EXTERNAL EXAMINER
_______________________
SIGNATURE/DATE
Project Supervisor
Head of Department
2
DEDICATION
I dedicate this project to the awesome God, whose loving kindness and
tender mercies has kept and preserved me till the end of my degree programme.
The faithful one, you are my all in all.
I also dedicate this project to my late mum, Mrs. Abimbola Kolawole, the one
that knows my weaknesses, the most valuable and precious gift I ever needed. You
are the greatest.
3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to recognise all who have contributed immensely one way or the other,
in making this project successful.
My loving and untiring father, Pastor J.F. Kolawole, for his consistent prayers
and godly advice, especially his invaluable support in making this project a huge
success. Your hard labour will not be in vain in Jesus name.
Chief and Chief (Mrs.) G.S. Adebayo and family, for their moral and financial
support.
My supervisor Mr. S. A. Aje for his fatherly instructions and guidance, which
made the writing process such a delight.
My informant Pastor Patrick Ashekame for giving the data, that made this
work possible.
My typesetter, Mr. Olasunkanmi Agboola for his typesetting skills. Thank you.
My sister cum mother, Mrs. Grace Awe and her dear husband Pastor M.O.
Awe and my siblings, Bro Mayowa, Evangelist Tope, Bro. Shogo, Bro Shola, Seyi and
the young Awes for being there for me. Thanks.
Pastor and Mrs. M. O. Adio, Pastor F. Adewuyi, Pastor G. Owolabi
their
prayers has really sustained me. God bless you sirs.
My friends and my pals Wayne, Bayan, Sherriph, Oyesunkanmi, Kenny-Velli,
Olawale, Dapo, Fatoki, Lola, Ismail, Micheal, Bisola Ndanusa, Emmanuel, D. Mayor,
and Akeem. Heaven help us all.
4
Finally, to the gracious and merciful God, for his infinite mercies. The Alpha
and the Omega am very grateful. To God be the glory, Redeemer, Saviour and
Friend.
5
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
S
GB
SPEC XP
CP
IP
NP
VP
N
V
PP
P
A
AADJP TNS CONJ M
D-S S-S
Aux AGR Adv ASP DET N’
V’
C’
Move  _
X
\
/
INFL -
Sentence
Government Binding Theory
Specifier
Maximal Projection
Complementizer Phrase
Inflectional Phrase
Noun Phrase
Verb Phrase
Noun
Verb
Prepositional Phrase
Preposition
Adjective
Adjective
Tense
Conjunction
Modal
Deep Structure
Surface Structure
Auxiliary
Agreement
Adverb
Aspect
Determiner
N bar
V bar
C bar
Move alpha
X-bar
Low tone
Mid tone
High tone
Inflection
6
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page
i
Certification
ii
Dedication
iii
Acknowledgements
iv
List of Symbols
vi
Table of Contents
vii
CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRDOUCTION
1.0
Introduction
1
1.1
Geographical Location
2
1.2
Aims and Objectives
4
1.3
Research Questions
4
1.4
Historical Background
4
1.5
Socio-Linguistic Background
13
1.6
Drastic Use of Uneme
14
1.7
Genetic Classification of Uneme
16
1.8
Theoretical Framework
17
1.9
Data Collection
17
1.10
Data Analysis
17
1.11
Brief Review of Government and Binding Theory
18
1.12
Scope and Organization
18
1.13
Review of the Chosen Framework
19
1.14
Sub Theories of Government and Binding
21
1.15
X-bar Theory
23
1.16
Case Theory
24
1.17
Theta Theory
25
1.18
Binding Theory
27
1.19
Government Theory
29
1.20
Bounding Theory
30
7
1.21
Control Theory
31
CHAPTER TWO: BASIC SYNTACTIC CONEPTS
2.0
Introduction
32
2.1
Deep Structure
33
2.2
Transformation
35
2.3
Move-
38
2.4
Question Formation in Different Languages
40
2.5
Yes or No Question in English
42
2.6
Surface Structure
45
2.7
Yes/No Questions in some Nigerian Languages
51
2.8
Phrase Structure Rules (PSR)
55
2.9
Lexical Categories
61
2.10
Basic Phonological Concepts
70
CHAPTER THREE: QUESTION FORMATION
3.0
Introduction
84
3.1
Question Types
85
CHAPTER FOUR: TRANSFORMATIONAL PROCESSES
4.0
Introduction
112
4.1
Focus Construction in Uneme
112
4.2
Relativization in Uneme
118
4.3
Reflexivization
122
8
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION
5.0
Introduction
126
5.1
Summary
126
5.2
Recommendations
127
5.3
Conclusion
128
References
130
CHAPTER ONE
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.0
Introduction
This Long essay will examine question formation in Uneme. As an
introduction, the historical background of the speakers, the geographical
location, the socio-cultural background and the genetic classification of Uneme
will be discussed.
Uneme is spoken in Etsako East of Edo State Nigeria, Uneme is also
spoken in Uzanu, Anegbete, Udochi and Ologua. From history the four towns
had the same parents, who later develop to a large community, and now live
as a town on their own.
The Uneme speakers are found in Edo State, Uneme people are
immigrant from Benin town in Edo State, Nigeria.
Question formation is also an ample illustration of transformational
processes. Question Formation as the focus topic on this research work are
9
primarily used to express lack for information on a specific point and to
request the listener to supply the information. Basically, we have 2 types of
question which include; yes or no question and the content word questions,
which is commonly known as WH-questions.
Content word questions require new information on account of its use
of question markers such as: who, what, why, where, when, which.
1.1
Geographical Location
Uneme is an ethnic group in Edo State of Nigeria, found under the
independence district of Etsako East, on latitude 6045N and 7035N and
longitudes 5055’ and 6045’E. Uneme people are also found in north-west in
Ondo State, Etsako Central Local Government Area is located in the heart of
Etsako land, it is bounded in the west by the Etsako West Local Government
Area. In the East by Etsako East Local Government Area and in the north by
Okene, also in South by Esan territory.
Under the Etsako district are; Anegbete, Udochi and Ologua as
neighbouring towns to Uzanu where Uneme is primarily dominated,the three
(3) neighbouring towns also speak Uneme language, but from history, it was
submitted that they were brothers from the same mother to each other,
under the Etsako province.
10
There was a quarrel between Uzanu and Anegbete, which led Uzanu to
be under Etsako East Local Government Area today and Anegbete in Etsako
Central and as a result there was a war between Uzanu and Anegbete which
later ended up in separation.
40
IBLLO
60kM
UNEME
EKPEDO
STATE
20
KOGI
0
ONDO STATE
IDAH
UNEME UZANU
IGARRA
UNEME
NEKHUA
UNEME AKI
OSU
UNEME
ERHURUN
UNEME
AIYETORO
AGENE BODE
UKEME
AKPAMA
ETSAKO
UNEME
OGHOMEZE
UNEME
UDOCH
UNEME
ANEGBETE
BENIN CITY
ESAN
DELTA STATE
11
ANAMBRA STATE
20
State boundaries----------------- Uneme Community----------------------Map of present day Edo State showing the location of Uneme
communities
1.2
Aims and Objectives
This research work aims at investigating how questions are formed in
Uneme language. This study intends to achieve these, through the below
stated objectives.
(i)
To examine the transformational processes in the language as regard
the processes of forming questions.
(ii)
To determine the various types of questions in Uneme language.
(iii)
To determine the phrase structure rules for all the question types in the
language.
Bearing in mind the stated aims and objectives above, in the study
provides answers to the following research questions;
1.3
Research Questions
(i)
What are the transformational processes in uneme question formation?
(ii)
What are the various question types in Uneme language.
12
(iii)
What phrase structure rule will be able to capture the question types in
Uneme language.
1.4
Historical Background
Hakeem (2003: 4) states that, “The history of Uneme people can be
traced to the core area of the Nok Cultural Zone located in the North-east of
the Niger-Benue confluence. The area represents the ancestral homeland of
not only Uneme people but also of related sub-ethnic groups which have
come to be described as the Edoid.
He also noted that Uneme people arrived in Benin area at the reign of a
king Ogiso Ereo and on the outskirts of Benin city. The Uneme people were
encouraged to move to Benin city in the tenth century, because of their
utilitarian metal crafts. It was the metal crafts that brought development into
Benin City. The Uneme people had to move out of Benin because of the way
they were treated (Uneme people were taken as slaves). This mode of
treatment instigated the relocation of the people from Benin City to their
present places of settlements.
Uneme speakers are located in Uzanu, Anegbete Udochi and Ologua.
The four towns developed from the same parents. But Unazu and Anegbete
quarrelled and separated. This explains why today, we have Uzanu in Etsako
east today and the Anegbete in Etsako Central. As a result of this quarrel it
13
later result to a war between Uzanu and Anegbete, the war went on for a
longer time Uzanu was having an upper hand in the war. One of the Anegbete
said they should send him to Bida to the Nupe people for assistance, he left
eventually, there were no vehicle then, about 100s year ago, he went on foot,
diabolically he was able to get there, and the war had been settled at home,
meanwhile he spent years, trying to learn the Nupe language, he got married
and had children before he was known.
He now asked someone to take him to the Oba of Nupe, getting to the
Oba, he said am here because some people are fighting my own kinsmen,
and they needed warriors to come and assist them in the war, meanwhile the
war at home had ended, the people are no longer fighting by the time he
came, he came with soldiers from Nupe and surprisingly there was no war to
fight, they went to meet the Oriola supposed to be the Head of Anegbete then
Oriola said Uzanu are brothers they cannot kill each other.
Meanwhile, the Oriola said there is no need for war, but the invaders
would not go back without anything, in the process they said they should
divide Anegbete into 2 and give them a part, the Oriola of Anegbete said is
not possible and submitted that if they came for war they should go and face
Uzanu but in the process Uzanu was not ready for war then, they were not
expecting any war, they were invaded and the king then ‘Iyema’ decided that
14
Uzanu should flee from that portion, so Uzanu flee first and left the
environment.
This is how the Uneme people move apart from one another, that is
why you find the Anegbete in where they are now and the Uzanu where they
are, and this is what made them to be separated from one another but they
are supposed to be children of the same parent.
Etsako is the local government district but the name originally came
from a ceremony been done in the community for virgins when a man takes a
bride and as a virgin, the man will mark the teeth by breaking part of the
front teeth, anybody that see the woman will know that she is married, but
naturally girls do not have the mark on their teeth.
The main reason while it is practised is that, if anybody wants to marry
a woman and see this mark will definitely know that she’s married, very easy
to recognise and very difficult for a woman to remarry, the name came
originally from this practise and presently is the local government area. The
local government has been split into 3 before, it was one (1) Etsako now
divided into 3, Etsako North which is the headquarters which is at Auchi,
Etsako Central is in Voga and Etsako east is now Agenegode but before, they
were all Etsako. The Anegbete and Udochi are falling to the Etsako central,
the small part of Udochi with Uzanu are also falling into the Etsako east. The
15
Udochi is divided into 2 but the majority are in the Etsako central and the
minority are in the Etsako east very close to Uzanu its about a kilometer
apart.
The Uneme recognised are south Uneme which include the (4) four Uneme
are Uzanu, Anegbete, Ologua and Udochi.
Festivals
Some of the festivals of Uneme community are connected with their
religious beliefs while others are connected with their socio-economic
activities. Notable among such festivals connected with religious belief is Ogun
festival. Ogun festival is associated with and devoted to the propitation and
veneration of god of iron. This festival is usually organised only by
ironsmelting societies. The festival is organised by allocating certain spots in
the community to the propitiation of Ogun.
The use of certain animals especially dogs, and the involvement of the
entire community in singing, drumming and dancing are common, so as to
appease Ogun as the god of iron.
The Uneme festival connected with socio-economic activities and Ukpe
festival, old yam festival and new yam festival. The Ukpe festival is always
celebrated in all Uneme communities,the festival serves as a major
16
communication channel to bid good bye to the outgoing year and to welcome
the incoming year.
An Oral Interview conducted with my informant Pastor Patrick
Asekhame, the old yam festival is celebrated annually between May and June
of every year.
Every family has to participate in the festival, although in some Uneme
communities, the orphans take more active part in the event than other
participants.
The Uneme’s dressing is somehow different, they used tusks, beads for
the women, the tusk for legs and for bangles on the handles for girls mostly
when they want to get married. In those days, they believed that a girl must
be a virgin before she got married as a result when a girl wants to get
married, she will not put on cloth but instead of cloth she will use beads to
cover her private part and almost naked moving round the town in those days
with a lot of beads and “Ashid” gotten from the bush to decorate the girl and
another reddish in colour substance to colour to brighten the girl and a lot of
beads on the head, just the way the Benin dresses. All these can be mode of
dressing of Uneme people.
Lastly, is the yam festival which is being organised to mark the
beginning of the harvest of new yams in every Uneme communities. Unlike
17
the old yam festival, it provided a forum and a communication channel, used
by the elders and leaders of Uneme communities for informing and directing
their subjects to feel free to eat the emergent new yam produce, it is
encouraged and ensured that pounded yam is served with melon soup or
ogbono.
Occupation
The major occupation of the Uneme people is iron smelting
(blacksmithing). The blacksmiths smelt the iron-ore mostly at night because of
the high temperature generated in the process of smelting, some of the
products of the blacksmiths are as follows: Anklets, bracelets, local necklace,
hoes, cutlasses, iron weapons, knives, plates and pots etc.
Farming is another occupation the Unemes are engaged in, and which
has been in existence for long. The people practice commercial farming
system, some of their products are cocoa, rice, yam, maize, cassava and
banana etc. All these form of occupation has really brought development to
the Uneme people and their various communities.
18
Marriage
Uneme people believed in polygamy, it is like a compulsory fact that, if
someone has not married two (2) wives is like the person is a lazy man. There
is what is called “Adeigbe” in Uneme, for instance, a first daughter is Osame
i.e. when she married a man, she does not have any right to give something
to her parent without the permission of the husband, if she does that, it is a
taboo and also the immediate sister of the first daughter, if she is a girl is
called Adegbe she is free from that kind of bondage, when she got married, if
she is unfaithful to her husband, it cannot have any side effect or backfire
spiritually, because, it is believed that if the first daughter is unfaithful to her
husband either sexually or immorally, it can backfire.
Religion
There are (3) three religions basically in Uneme communities which are,
African traditional religion, Christianity and Islam.
(i)
African Traditional Religion
The Uneme people who are traditionalist have their beliefs in Osanobua
or Ogbene or Osi which is the Supreme Being. Osanoboua is believed to have
had heavily aides who were appointed by him, among such aides were the
local divinities or deities, Llisa (referred to as the gods and goddesses) and
the spirits (especially Esi). One major proof of Uneme’s belief in the
19
uniqueness of Osanobua is the fact that every Uneme man or woman usually
called on him through his various aides for protection and extrication from the
hand of perpetrators of evils. The traditionalist had made efforts to develop
the town by entertaining the people in their annual festivals.
(ii)
Christianity
Hakeem asserts that Christianity was brought into Uneme communities
in the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s by Christian Missionaries like Ogidan of the
Anglican Communities. He was from Uzosi kindred in Uneme Akpama in
Akoko-Edo Local Government Area. This was done through the help of some
Yoruba evangelists, who visited Akoko-Edo frequently, the first church of the
missionaries in Uneme Akpama,was the St. Luke’s Anglican Church was built
in 1922.
Another missionary who helped in the spread of Christianity in Uneme
community was Chief Ezekiel Adeleye Igenuma Uduak Peghemehe, from the
Enivbosu area of Uneme Erhurun. He was the brain behind the building of the
first church in Uneme Erhurun around 1923, which was also an Anglican
church.
Rev. Oyebode, a Yoruba Christian priest based in Auchi, was the first
Anglican missionary to influence the spread of the religion in Uneme Aki-Osu
20
in Akoko-Edo area, in the early 1920s. He established the St. John’s Church in
1920, which was the first church in the area.
(iii) Islam
The Islamic religion has been in existence before the advent of
Christianity in Uneme communities Islam was introduced to the Uneme’s by
the Nupes during there (Nupe) military and colonizing activities in Akoko-Edo
in the 19th century. The conversion of the people to Islam had to wait till the
fall of Nupe’s regime in 1897. It was only few of Uneme people that were
converted into the religion. What hindered the growth of the religion in
Akoko-Edo in the twentieth century was the absence of Mallams or Ulama,
Islam up till date as not really found a strong root in Uneme communities.
1.5
Socio-Linguistic Background
This has to do with socio-cultural linguistic relation Uneme has with
other languages around them and the socio function it performs.
Uneme have a language used in trading, it is used with the
neighbouring community to trade i.e. Uzanu is the boundary with Edo and
Ebira. There is a common market based on trade by barter i.e. exchanging of
goods and services, there is no general mutual intelligibility area where
speakers of different languages come together to trade but the market, as a
result of language barrier what is practised is, exchanging of goods.
21
The role it plays in religion for instance is the church, there is an
interpreter of a message from English to Uneme for better understanding and
clearity and for uneducated people to understand what the preacher is saying.
Also, Islamic scholars makes interpretation of every word in from
English to Uneme. There is no written bible or quran in Uneme language,
except traditional religion, this is because they have their own language and
charts they make use of and they also follow tradition.
1.6
Drastic Use of Uneme
In education, Uneme does not have a form of formal education, but
have their form of informal education that has nothing to do with English
education, it is mainly informal, the language is used to give informal
education i.e. home training e.g. in the farm or in the kitchen.
22
23
1.7
Genetic Classification of Uneme
NIGER CONGO
West Atlantic
Mande
Gur
Kru
Kwa Adamawa Eastern Benue Congo
Ukaan Defoid Oko Emosayan Yoruboid Akpes Cluster Edoid Nupoid Idomoid Igboid Cross River
Delta Edoid
Edoid
North-Central Edoid
Edo
Ikpeshi
North-Edoid
Ghotuo
Sasaruenwanigwe Ososo Uneme
Etsako
Ivbie North Okpela-Arhe
Source: Newmann, 1978.
24
1.8
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework of this project will be Government and Binding
Theory (GB) Charley (1981).
1.9
Data Collection
The method adopted for collecting data for this research work is the
contact method. This denotes a personal contact with an informant who is a
native speaker of Uneme language. The frame technique will be used in
collecting linguistic data for this research work. The name of the informant is
“Pastor Patrick Asekhame”. He is a contractor. He is 54 years old and has lived in
Uzanu for 23 years. He speaks English fluently.
1.10 Data Analysis
The data collected are transcribed and worked upon according to how the
native speakers use it without imposing any extraneous rules or norms of
correctness. The morpheme that make up the phrase and sentences are also
carefully glossed through frame (paradigmatic) or substitution technique (which
allows for eliciting or considerable account of information by manipulating
linguistic element within the framework.
1.11 Brief Review of Government Binding Theory
The theory that would be used in the research work is Government
Binding Theory. The theory explains Universal Grammar as introduced by
Chomsky (1981).
According to Cook (1988: 30), Government-Binding Theory elaborate
syntactic levels through the concept of movement. Radford (1988: 401)
described Government Binding Theory as a modular deductive theory of
grammar
that
posits
multiple
levels
of
representation
related
by
a
transformational rule called “move alpha (). Government and Binding Theory
operates through the modules of grammar. Government, case, theta, control,
binding bonding and X-bar theory.
1.12 Scope and Organisation
The central focus of the study is to examine the question formation
processes in Uneme language. The study is limited to Uneme language, except
where it becomes necessary to give example in other languages for the purpose
of comparison.
This research work is organised in a way that it will comprise five (5)
chapters. The first chapter will be the general introduction, hence, it will include,
xxvi
historical profile, sub-cultural profile and socio-cultural profile of the speakers of
the language under study, the genetic classification, aims and objectives of the
study, research question, the method of data collection analysis and theoretical
framework to be adopted and it is brief history.
In chapter two (2), it will introduce and explicitly explain with examples in
Uneme language, the basic syntactic concepts such as Phrase Structure Rule,
part of speech, basic word order, sentence types found, lexical categories in the
language.
The third chapter will focus on the research topic which is question
formation description in the language, here, the phenomenon of question
formation will be fully examined.
The fourth chapter will be on transformational processes. Transformational
processes such as focus construction, relativization, reflexivization etc. will be
explained with adequate and illustrating data from Uneme language.
Chapter five (5) which is the last chapter, will be based on conclusion and
summary of the whole work.
1.13 Review of the Chosen Framework
The theory to be used in the analysis of question formation in Uneme
xxvii
language is the Government and Binding Theory (GB). This theory is a modular
deductive theory of universal grammar which posits multiple level of
representation related by the transformational rule. However, it is a more
advanced theory of Universal Grammar. Sanusi (1996: 19-21).
Again, Sanusi (1996: 21) explained that government and binding theory
greatly eliminates proliferation of transformational rules like passive, affix
hopping, verb number agreement, question formation, equi-NP deletion, raising
permutation, insertion etc.
Hegman (1991: 13) defined Government and Binding Theory as a theory
of Universal Grammar which is the system of all the principles that are common
to all human languages. Government and Binding Theory is otherwise known as
principle and parameter theory.
In Government and Binding Theory, the grammar is a continuous
interaction between component and sub theories embodying different principle
and parameters.
Government and Binding Theory operate through the modules of grammar
like government, case, control, theta, binding, bounding and X-bar theory.
xxviii
1.14 Sub Theories of Government and Binding
Horrock (1987: 29) stated that, the care grammar of a given language is
derived from the interaction of sub-theories of universal grammar. These subtheories are: X-bar theory, case theory, government theory, control theory,
binding theory, bounding theory and the theta theory.
The above listed sub-theories are diagrammatically represented below to
show the inter relationship among them.
xxix
MODULAR THEORY OF GRAMMAR
X-BAR Theory
D-STRUCTURE
PROJECTION
PRINCIPLE
LEXICON
Move-a
(Bounding)
Ө-THEORY
(Ө-CRITERION)
CASE-THEORY
(CASE FILTER)
S- STRUCTURE
ECP
Control
Binding
PHONETIC FORM
LOGICAL FORM
(Adapted from Cook (1988: 33).
xxx
1.15 X-bar Theory
Based on appropriate analysis, for this research work, X-bar is the theory
to be adopted for comprehensive analysis.
According to “the X-bar theory is the central module of the principles and
paramenters approach in syntax”.
Also, Haegman (1994) says that the X-bar theory is the part of grammar
regulating the structure of a phrase.
The core of X-bar theory is the recognition of the fact that phrasal
constituents have ‘head’ upon which the other elements of the constituents in
question are dependent. (Horrocks 1987: 63) He submits that items which are
involved in sub-categorization and which are in most cases interrupted as
argumentss of the head, appear with the head X in a phrasal category X-bar. Xbar is called a phrasal ‘projection’ of head, in this case the smallest constituent X
as a sub-constituent (Horrocks, 1987: 64).
From the above, the cover symbol ‘X’ stands for the set of lexical
categories which head phrases, as in V (for verb), N (for noun), Adj (for
xxxi
adjective), P (for preposition), Adv (for adverb), such that N heads NP, V heads
VP, P heads PP, Adj heads Adjp and Adv heads Advp. This implies that phrasal
categories e.g. VP, PP, NP, AP all have heads that belong to the same category
as the phrasal category (Akmajian, 2001: 215).
Again, Horrocks (1987) explains that X-theory periods principles for the
projection of phrasal categories from lexical categories and imposes conditions of
hierarchical organization of categories in the form of general schemata. Thus,
the general phrase structure rule schema for phrasal categories would be: XP

X
Comp.
Where ‘comp’ which stands for complement could be a ‘PP’ or an ‘NP’ with ‘X’
standing for a lexical category e.g. P. N, V etc. This implies that when ‘X’
represents ‘N’, it means that ‘XP’ is an ‘NP’, when ‘X’ represents ‘V’, then ‘XP’ is a
‘VP’ and so on.
In summary, the major concern of the X-bar theory is to describe the
syntactic
and
formal
structures
of
phrases
and
the
inherent
general
characteristics they have in common.
1.16 Case Theory
According to Horrocks (1987: 102), “case theory deals with the principle of
xxxii
case assignment to constituents”.
Yusuf (1998: 26) defines case theory as a theory that deals with the forms
that NPs take in different syntactic environments.
Basically, the assignment of case is done under government theory in
which the choice of case is determined by the governor.
He also makes it clear that, case assignor are always head of their phrases
and are adjacent to the complements that receive the case (pg. 28).
The implication is that, a verb cannot assign any case to prepositional
phrase as there is an NP barrier. That blocks such a transfer.
The three common case under Government and Binding theory are:
-
Nominative case assigned by tensed INFL
-
Accusative case assigned by verb
-
Oblique case assigned by prepositions
1.17 Theta Ө Theory
Another module under GB theory is theta theory. The submission of this
theory is that a lexical category will have Ө attributes either as assigner or
assignee.
Horrocks (1987: 101-107) says Ө-theory is concerned with the assignment
xxxiii
of what Chomsky called ‘thematic’ roles to sentential constituents. By thematic
roles, Chomsky means thematic assignment called semantic roles such as agent,
patient, etc. It is assumed that these are assigned to the complements of lexical
items as a lexical property.
For example:
Play the ball on the pitch
The NP complement “the ball” is assigned the role of patient or theme
while the PP complement is assigned the role of location.
In all, the fundamental task of Ө-theory is to determine the circumstances
(i.e. the syntactic position) occupied by an NP as well as the governor of such
position in the sentence.
Examples:
The goalkeeper threw the ball to the opponent
The goalkeeper

subject
The ball

Direct object
The opponent

Indirect object
The main principle of Ө-theory is Ө criterion which requires each thematic
role to be uniquely assigned. Each argument bears one and only one Ө-role and
xxxiv
Ө-role is assigned to one and only one argument. Yusuf (1998: 124).
The commonly expressed roles are agents, theme, instrument, locative
(goal, source, direction) and a few more.
Yusuf stresses further that, participants are assigned these roles in the Dstructure, whatever it is, the V or P assigned Ө-roles to their governed
complement while the VP assigns a role to be subject NP.
The thrust of Ө-criterion is that every argument (be it subject, direct or
indirect object) must have a Ө-role.
1.18 Binding Theory
Madjaer (1991: 46) refers to binding theory as a theory that is concerned
with the systematic domain in which NP can and cannot be constructed as coreferential.
Yusuf (1998: 45) in his own view states that binding theory is concerned
with the relationships of NP participants in the sentence. Precisely, binding
theory shows how NP can be related to another NP.
Chomsky (1988: 520) submits that binding theory deals with the
connection among Noun Phrases that have to do with such semantic properties
as dependence or reference, including the connection between the pronouns and
xxxv
its antecedents.
The implication of the above definition is that, binding theory deals with
the co-referential relationship among NPs in the same sentence. That is, how
NPs co-referred or co-indexes one another in a simple sentence.
NPs that are argument are assumed to fall into one of these three
categories:
-
Anaphors
-
Pronominal
-
Referential expressions
Anaphors
These are NP types that must have antecedents they depend on one for
existence in some definite place in the sentence. Reciprocals and reflexive
pronouns fall under this class e.g.
Ade hurts himself
“Himself” in the above sentence refers back to Ade, therefore Ade is the
antecedent which licensed its existence.
Pronominal
These are NPs that lack specific lexical content and have only the features;
xxxvi
person, number, gender and case they either refer to individuals independently
or co-refer to the individuals already mentioned in a given sentence. E.g.
Bola greeted her mother.
“Her” may refer to the individual denoted by Bola, or another individual not
mentioned in the sentence.
Referential Expression
These are NPs lexical heads which potentially refer to something.
A
referential expression is also known as R-expression and they are NPs with
lexical ability to refer to something without necessarily having any antecedent to
license their existence.
Bola says Kunle should be flogged
“Bola and Kunle” in the above example denote 2 different persons. That is
they are not co-referring each other.
1.19 Government Theory
Madjaer (1991: 495) says government theory is concerned with the
relationship between a head and its complements, and defines relationship in
other sub-theories.
Yusuf (1998: 140) says government theory is a principle theory in that, it
xxxvii
is a long known fact of grammar that a verb governs its object (where the object
could be NP, PP,CP) while the pre/postposition governs its object also.
The implication of this is that, a verb will govern the NP object that directly
followed it, while a preposition governs its own NP object. According to Chris
(2000: 140) the theory is concerned with the relationship between a head and its
complements. It also defines the relationship in other sub-theories.
According to Chomsky (1986) cited in Yusuf (1998: 47) the principle of
proper government profers that:
Β is properly governed by  if it is governed by  and a certain kind of
connection holds between  ad β.
1.20 Bounding Theory
This theory aimed at limiting the displacement of constituents by
transformational rule of move .
According to Horrocks (1987) it is a way of constraining the movement
rule move . Movement rule within the GB theory is assumed to following:
-
An extraction site i.e. where an element is being removed
-
A landing site i.e. where the element moved to
-
An intervening gap i.e. the
space between the extraction site
xxxviii
and the landing site of an element.
Bounding theory does not only monitor the extraction and the landing site for an
element, but it also placed a constraint and limit on the element that can be
moved, where it can be moved to and how far the element can be moved.
1.21 Control Theory
Horrocks (1987: 31), in his description of control theory, says that, it is
one in which verbs take infinitival complements that have null subject. They are
understood as being co-referential with an NP in the main clauses which is not
overtly stated but is represented by PRO. The obvious property of PRO can be
explained by saying it must only occur when it’s not governed.
Chomsky (1986: 183) describes this notion of PRO as ungoverned.
Consequently, PRO can never have case (since it has no governor). Let us
consider the following examples to explain the above theory.
1a.
Ade promised his father he would buy the bag
1b.
Tade promised his father [PRO to buy the bag]
PRO in the above example is controlled by ‘TADE’ which is the subject of the
man clause.
xxxix
CHAPTER TWO
BASIC SYNTACTIC CONCEPTS
2.0
Introduction
In this chapter, I will review some of the works that have been done as
regards to question formation. In the light of this, I will examine the aspect of
basic syntactic concept, transformation question formation, phrase structure
rules, theoretical framework to be adopted and a brief review of the chosen
framework. Also, the basic syntactic concepts attested in Uneme language will be
examined in this chapter.
Syntax is a branch of linguistics which studies the arrangement of words to
form meaningful and grammatical sentences. It deals with how words are
combined to form phrases, clauses and sentences.
Syntax deals with the arrangement of words in human language as words
are not just strung together randomly, rather, they follow certain regular and
peculiar patterns in which words combine to form phrases, clauses and
sentences in the given language.
The syntactic level is made up of two (2) sub-components known as Dstructure for deep-structure) and S-structure (surface structure).
xl
D-structure is based on how transformation operates to map it onto the Sstructure. The D-structure is derived by the base rules, categorical rules, strict
sub categorization, selectional restrictions and the phrase structure rules.
Sanusi (1996: 33) attest that syntax is the study of the patterns of
arrangement of words, or how words are combined to form phrases, clauses and
sentences.
Yusuf, (1997: 1) explains that syntax is the aspect of grammar of language
which deals how words are put together to form sentences and how such
sentences are interpreted in natural languages.
2.1
Deep Structure
D-structure is the output of phrase structure and lexicon both from the
base or underlying structure, suppose we have applied the appropriate phrase
structure rules and have derived the string.
Det + N + PAST + V
From the phrase structure rule and suppose we have inserted lexical items
along with their phonological and semantic features.
The D-structure is the level at which we obtain all the information on the
words and their combination. This level of derivation is created by the base and
xli
has no transformation applied to it.
In D-structure, every word has its inherent preparation and the words
group together in a rule governed way resulting in a linear order such as our
phrase structure rule in Transformational Grammar (TG) as;
S

NP INFL VP
NP

(Det) (Adj) N (S’)
INFL 
TNS AGR (M) (ASP)
AGR 
PER NO GEN CASE
ASP

PERF PROG
S’

Comp S
The above set of rules can take care of sentences like:
1a.
I came
b.
I will see the man who will wash my car
but can not account for!
2a.
Did you come?
b.
Who will you see?
Despite the fact that (1) and (2) above are related, they cannot be
captured by the above phrase structure rule, because to generate (2) we have to
xlii
dislodge INFL out of its natural habitat i.e. between NP and VP because (2) could
be said to be derived from (1) but something happened to (2) along its way to Sstructure and cannot be captured by the phrase structure rule, for this reason,
we have to invoke supplementary rule known as ‘transformation’, the D-structure
is subjected to transformation, which can move words in the sentence.
S-structure can be derived through some transformational processes like;
passivization, relativization, focus construction, question formation and so on:
but it cannot be captured by the PS rules used to capture D-structure. For
example:
a.
you
are
coming
NP
INFL VP

D-structure
to make out our question from the above transformation (movement) must occur
are
you
INFL NP
2.2
coming

S-structure
VP
Transformation
According to Carnie (2007: 244) Chomsky (1957) observed that a phrase
structure grammar (such as X-bar) theory cannot generate all the sentences of a
language. He proposed that what was needed was a set of rules that change the
xliii
structure rules. These rules are called transformational rules.
Transformation take the output of X-bar rules (and other transformation)
and change them into different trees.
The model of grammar that we are suggesting here takes the following
forms. The derivation of a sentence starts at the top and what comes out at the
final level is what we say.
The Computation Component
The lexicon 
X-bar rules
D-Structure
Constrained by the theta criterion
Transformational rules
S-Structure
Constrained by EPP
Grammaticality judgment
xliv
the base
Source: Carnie (2007).
Radford (1988: 919) explains that the two levels of syntactic structures (Dstructure) and (S-structure) are interrelated by a set of movement rules which
are technically called ‘transformations’.
The purpose of transformational rule is to show relations between deep
and surface structures. Transformations are operations which add, delete or
permute (that is change order and sometimes also hierarchy relationship) among
constitutents. Traugatt and Pratt (1980: 42).
Some of the transformational processes are obligation for a grammatical
sentence to be generated, others however do not have to apply. For example:
1a.
Bayo saw Rukayat
It is not necessary (although possible) to turn an active sentence like the
above into passive form:
1b.
Rukayat was seen by Bayo
unlike the above expression, in some cases, it is compulsory to convert the
abstract below:
2a.
NEG I
saw
something
in other sequence like
xlv
bi.
I did not see anything
ii.
I saw nothing
because the element NEG cannot turn up in the surface structure.
Transformation specify the way sentences and parts of sentences may be
put together while preserving the basic meaning for example:
“I saw nothing and I did not see anything’.
Are roughly equivalent in meaning. The major component in transformation is
‘movement’. Some of the various transformational rules include;
-
Move-
-
Trace movement
-
Adjunct movement
-
Auxiliary-NP-inversion
-
Affix hopping rule and so on.
Our focus will be on movement which is explained below:
2.3
Move-
As earlier stated, the major transformational component is movement. An
element is moved from its basic location into the linear order and generated by
the PS rules and adjoined into another category.
xlvi
Due to the preponderance of the movement transformation in the
grammar of natural languages, the transformational component has come to be
known in the more recent research as move- (pronounced as move alpha). In
its ordinary senses, move- means ‘move any variable category’.
Yusuf (1998: 79) attests that ‘move-, a transformational process
mediates between one sentence structure and another more basic sentence
type’. That is, move anything () over a variable X or Y. In other words, move-
{when  could be a WH phrase, an NP, a VP, PP, CP, indeed anything (i.e. XP)}
to the left, right, beginning or end of a phrase (usually sentences) this is shown
below with the aid of a diagram.
X
a
Y
WHP
XP
In-situ position
The above diagram claims that a constituent can be moved from an in-situ
xlvii
position, regardless of all other variables to lie on either side of the in-situ
position. However, the movement is not arbitrary, if it is constrained by the
subjacency principle. In other words, move- is subject to subjacency which
stipulates that: “an element or constituent that has undergone movement can be
cross not more than one boundary node as a result of the application of the rule
move-.

S1
S2
S3


extraction site
Some constituents move from one location (the extraction site) to another
position, (the landing site). The landing site, no less than the extraction site
varies (whitin limits) from sentence to sentence. Some constrictions may move
from complement while others are from adjunct and may land in some unfilled
SPEC or other locations.
xlviii
2.4
Question Formation in Different Languages
Denotatively, question formation is a transformational process which deals
with how questions are formed. Question on the other hand is a phrase that ask
for information.
Question is a prototypical illustration of transformational process as
questions are formed from basic sentences through movement (transformation).
Traugott and Pratt (1980) and Yusuf (1997) attest that questions are of
two basic kinds; namely:
(i)
Yes or No questions
(ii)
Content word questions
All syntactic questions involve movement of underlying constituents (A
sentence such as ‘my name?’ is syntactically not a question, although it is one
phonologically, because of its rising information and pragmatically).
Linguistically, questions are marked by one of these three criteria.
(i)
The placing of the Operator Immediately before the subject:
‘will you see the man?’
(ii)
The initial position of an interrogative WH-element
Who will you see?
xlix
(iii)
Rising intonation []
‘you will see the man?’
l
2.5
Yes or No Question in English
This type of question expects only affirmation or rejection. Alternatively,
Yes or No questions are called “truth questions” as they ask for the truth value of
the sentence.
The transformation for Yes/No questions involves essentially the same
phrase structure elements as n’t insertion (Traugott and Pratt 1980: 151).
In forming Yes/No question in english language, the general rule is to
move the first member of the INFL along with TENSE sentence-initially. Yes-No
questions demands positive or negative answers and this normally starts with
auxiliary or modal verb. For example:
li
1i.
you are hungry
D-structure
IP
Spec
I’
I
MOD Spec
‘you are hungry’
VP
V’
V
You
be
hungry
lii
ii.
are you [ei] hungry
S-structure
CP
SPEC
Q-M
C’
C
‘are you hungry’
IP
SPEC
I’
I
VP
[ei]
SPEC
V’
V
are
you
hungry
liii
2.6
Surface Structure
Under the Yes/No question we have three rules:
(i)
Aux NP – inversion
(ii)
Affix hopping rule
(iii)
Do-support rule
2.6.1 Aux-NP-Inversion
This rule will account for the Yes or No question with only few exceptions.
(Yusuf 1997: 78).
Aux-NP inversion (also known as subject NP inversion) is a name
reminiscent of the time when INFL was called “Auxiliary”.
The rule has to do with the swooping of linear order between the subject
and the first member of INFL that is inverted with the affixal ‘tense’ we can say
that “tense” with any of the INFL elements, which ever comes first is inverted to
give the Yes/No interrogative sentence. This is schematized as:
NP
T
M
Have X
be
liv
-------------1
2
3

213
(X is a variable which includes null element or any element following the named
members: modal, have, or be). For example:
1i.
ii.
NP
AUX V
You
are
going
1
2
3
NP
AUX V
Are
you
going?
1
2
3
2.6.2 Affix Hopping Rule
This is a rule that gives the input of the syntax into the morphophonemic
form of a word. The rule adjoins the affixal elements in INFL to the verb
categories. For example:
I

I-
saw
ed
see
him
him
Tola would have been travelling.
Our informal rule will then say that ‘past’ suffix moves to the front of the
lv
‘modal’, will, “participial” – ‘en’ to the front of be and “continuative” –ing in front
of travel.
Tola will –ed have –en be travel-ing
Affix hoping rule will arrange the words like this:
Tobi will –ed have be-en travel-ing
The rule can be formalized as:
X
AFFIX [+VE]
Y
1
2
4
3
In other words, whatever preceeds the verbal affix follows the root verbal
element [+VE] notated as variables X, Y do participate in the process. The affix
(2) moves to the front of the verbal element (3) and attaches to the node:
X
AFFIX [+VE]
Y
1
2
3
2
-
3+2 4
4
Another principal rule that operates aside Aux-NP inversion is the Affix
hopping rule:
X
AFFIX [+VE] Y

X
[+VE] +
2.6.3 Do-Support Rule
lvi
AFFIX
Y
The Do-support rule serves as a kind of carrier which carriers question. For
example.
I saw him
I –ed see her
Therefore, there is nothing else to move. As earlier stated there is no other
INFL element than “tense” in the sentence. It follows then that if we permute
our “Aux”- NP inversion for the above is:
I-ed see X

-ed
I
see
X
Let’s not forget that there is a do to which tense attaches to give.
Did I see X
Did I see her?
It follows then that where there is no other “Aux” element in INFL, do is
adjoined to “tense” to bear it. This process is called the do – support.
In more mundane terminology, where a verbal affix like ‘tense’ is stranded
(having no root verb to attach to) Do comes to the rescue of this affixal orphan
(Yusuf, 1997: 81).
The rule for the above statement as stated by Yusuf is that: ‘where there
is no “Aux” element in INFL other than “tense”, insert Do as a surrogate bearer
lvii
of the tense affix’.
3i.
she danced well
D-Structure
lviii
IP
Spec
I’
‘she danced well’
I
VP
TNS SPEC
PST
V’
V
ADVP
ADV
she
-ed
dance
well
lix
ii.
Did she dance well?
S-Structure
CP
SPEC
C’
Q-M C
‘did she dance well?’
IP
SPEC
I’
I
VP
SPEC
V’
V
ADVP
ADV
Did
she
dance
well
lx
2.7
Yes/No Questions in Some Nigerian Language
The derivation of Yes or No question in some Nigerian languages does not
necessarily involve movement, all we need to do is to adjoin the question marker
in such languages.
In Yoruba, the adjoined element is either ‘se’ or ‘nje’. In some cases, we
can have a few dialectal or archaic forms which are question markers. In Hausa,
‘ko’ is the basic Q-M.
Yoruba:
i.
Ade
ti
lọ
Ade
PAST go
oko
farm
‘Ade has gone to the farm’
lxi
D-Structure
IP
SPEC
I’
N’
I
N
TNS SPEC
MOD
‘Ade has gone to the farm’
VP
V’
V
NP
N’
N
Ade
ti
lọ
oko
Ade
PAST
go
farm
lxii
ii.
Se
Ade ti
lọ
oko?
QM NP
PAST go
farm
‘has Ade gone to the farm?’
S-Structure
CP
SPEC
Q-M
C’
C
‘has Ade gone to the farm?’
IP
SPEC
I’
N’
I
VP
N
TNS SPEC
PAST
C’
V
NP
N’
N
Se
Has
Ade
Ade
ti
has
lọ
go
lxiii
oko?
farm
3i.
Audu ya
NP
zo
gida
AGR come house
‘Audu came home’
D-Structure
IP
SPEC
I’
N’
I
N
AGR SPEC
‘Audu came home’
VP
V’
V
NP
N’
N
lxiv
Audu
ya
zo
gida
Audu
he
come
house
ii.
ko
Audu yaa zo
gida?
Q-M NP
AGR come house
‘did Audu come home?’
S-Structure
CP
SPEC
Q-M
C’
C
‘did Audu come home?’
IP
SPEC
I’
I
VP
SPEC
V’
V
NP
N’
Ko
ya
lxv
zo
gida
did
2.8
he
come
house
Phrase Structure Rules (PSR)
Syntax can be seen as an aspect of linguistics that accounts for how words
are strung together to form sentences. It is good to note that adequate attention
should be given to the rules that govern such formation. Human language has a
set of rules being considered before words are put together, so as to generate
meaningful sentences. These rules that govern how words are put together are
called phrase structure rules (PSR).
Native speakers of Uneme language are rich in these rules. Therefore, our
focus will be on the intuitive knowledge of the native speakers, and how they
form their phrases and sentences.
Here, the attention will be on the four basic phrases, which are: Noun
Phrase (NP), Prepositional Phrase (PP), Verb Phrase (VP) and Adjective Phrase
(Adj P). Reason being that these are the only four phrases recognised in
Government and Binding (GB) framework.
2.8.1 Noun Phrase (NP)
Yusuf (1992: 119) asserts that noun and its satellites form a noun phrase
(NP). The head of phrase noun can occupy either right or left positions and can
lxvi
be noun phrase. According to Yusuf (1997: 8) the noun phrase is headed by the
Noun (N) or Pronoun (when it will not be modified). It is by virtue of this
headedness that the phrase is called the noun. The ‘head’ of a phrase is the
single word that can stand for the whole construction; it is the single lexical
items that can replace the whole phrase.
The different Noun Phrase structures in Uneme language examined below:
1.
évìé kèmé
goat my
‘my goat’
NP

N Det
NP
‘my goat’
N’
SPEC
N
Det
évìé
kèmé
goat
my
2.8.2 Prepositional Phrase (PP)
lxvii
The prepositional phrase is a type of phrase constituent of grammatical
structure that consists of a preposition followed by a prepositional complement
normally a noun phrase (Collins, 1990: 29).
Jowitt and Nnamonu (1985: 228), says that “A preposition is frequently
used to form idiomatic phrases which functions as adverbial of time, place and
manner, etc.” The prepositional phrase is headed by a preposition and it comes
before noun in Uneme language. Examples below are from Uneme language:
1.
[usòmì
ónò
itébùlú]
on
the
table
PP

PP Det NP
PP
P’
P
NP
‘on the table’
Spec
N’
Det
N
lxviii
usòmì
ónò
itébùlú
on
the
table
lxix
2.8.3 Verb Phrase (VP)
Verb phrase are usually made up of a main verb and one or more available
verbs. The complements of verb phrases are usually made up of the NP, PP,
ADVP, and sometimes a clausal category (a sentential complement) Quirk, et al
1985).
Verb Phrase is also called the ‘predicate’ because it has the sentence
predicator, namely, the verb. The verb is the head of the Verb Phrase (VP). It is
this lexical category that tells us what the participatory roles of the nominals are
in the sentence, say as semantic AGENT, PATIENT, LOCATIVE, EXPERIENCER,
etc. The verb will also indicate the role of such nominals, syntactically, either as
subject or objects. As the head of the VP, it is obligatory to present it with or
without its satellites. Verb satellites could be complements or adjunct (Yusuf,
1997: 21).
The Verb Phrase (VP) is illustrated below with the Uneme examples:
1.
[há
àmè]
drink water
‘drink water’
VP

V
NP
lxx
VP
V’
V
NP
N’
N
há
àmè
drink
water
2.8.4 Adjective phrase
In Uneme language, adjective comes after all constituents. They are
placed after noun to which they serve as modifiers. The phrases given below
illustrates adjective phrase in Uneme language.
1.
[wósé
girl
ìmuwósó]
bueaitful
lxxi
‘beautiful girl’
AP

NP
A
AP
A’
‘beautiful girl’
NP
A
N’
N
há
àmè
house
new
From the examples given above, it is observable that each phrase I headed by
the lexical categories i.e. Noun Phrase is headed by a Noun, Prepositional Phrase
is headed by a preposition, Verb Phrase is headed by a Verb and adjective
phrase is headed by an adjective.
lxxii
2.9
Lexical Categories
Lexical categories refer to parts of speech in a given language. They
include noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, determiner, and
conjunction.
2.9.1 Noun
Darbyshire (1967: 124) asserts that “a noun is a lexeme which functions
typically as the head of a nominal segment”. Traditionally, a noun can be defined
as a part of speech that identifies people, places, objects, actions, qualities and
ideas.
There are different types of nouns among which are:
-
Common Nouns
-
Proper Nouns
-
Concrete Nouns
-
Abstract Nouns
2.9.1.1 Common Noun
Common nouns identify general categories of things. Some of tehse can
be countable or non-countable nouns.
2.9.1.2 Countable Nouns:
lxxiii
[bè] ‘book’
[meme di
be]
I
book
buy
‘I bought a book’
2.9.1.3 Non-countable Nouns
[ùméni]
‘salt’
[amé]
‘water’
2.9.1.4 Proper Nouns
Proper nouns specify specific people place and the likes. The examples of
proper noun in Uneme language are:
[únm]
‘name of a town’
[kŋláwŋlé] ‘name of a person’
2.9.1.5 Concrete Nouns
Concrete nouns are nouns that are visible that is a noun that can be
touched, seen or measured. Examples of concrete nouns in Uneme are:
[ŋbà]
‘stick’
[ùwèrè]
‘knife’
2.9.1.6 Abstract Nouns
lxxiv
Abstract nouns are nouns that cannot be seen and measured. Abstract
nouns cannot be counted. Examples of abstract nouns in Uneme language are
shown below:
[ófé]
‘fear’
[òsàmí]
‘hunger’
lxxv
2.9.2 Pronoun
According to Dabyshire (1967: 137). “A pronoun is a word which can
correlate with a noun or nominal segment”. Pronoun is used in place of a noun.
The word that a pronoun refers to is called antecedent.
Pronouns may be classified according to their use into the following types:
2.9.2.1 Personal Pronoun
Personal pronouns refer to living things and objects. These pronouns have
separate forms that shows numbers, case, person and gender.
Number
[meme]
‘I’
1st person singular
[wãwã]
‘we’
1st person plural
[òmosè]
‘he’
2nd person singular
[òkpósò]
‘she’ 3rd person plural
Subject case
[òmosè]
‘he’
[òkpósò]
‘she’
Objective case
[mí]
‘me’
lxxvi
[íkè]
‘your’
[wáwã]
‘us’
Gender
[òmosè]
‘he’
[òkpósò]
‘she’
2.9.2.2 Reflexive Pronoun
As the name implies, it reflects the action upon the subjective. Examples in
Uneme are:
[òlélé]
‘himself’
2.9.2.3 Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. Examples in Uneme
language are:
[là]
‘whom’
[gonòkì]
‘which’
[mkì]
‘what’
[là]
‘who’
2.9.2.4 Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns show the owner of possessor of things. They include:
lxxvii
[ikm]
‘mine’
[ìkalè]
‘their’
[ìkáwã]
‘our’
2.9.2.5 Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns refer directly to a particular thing or actions.
Examples in Uneme language are:
[óníní]
‘that’
[ìnà]
‘this’
[eníní]
‘those’
[ná]
‘these’
2.9.3 Conjunctions
A conjunction is the link between morpheme or a word functioning to
perform coordination. Conjunctions functions to join two words or sentences that
stand separately to become one. Examples of conjunctions are:
[íkìlé]
‘neither’
[ànemíè]
‘but’
[lelí]
‘and’
[lelí]
‘with’
lxxviii
[kàkini]
‘either’
lxxix
2.9.4 Verb
The word verb can be used as a general name for the head of verbal
groups. Verbs play an important role in a sentence by linking the action that has
take place between the subject and object i.e. the one that is linking an action
(AGENT) and the receiver of an action (PATIENT). We have two classes of verbs:
the transitive and the intransitive verbs.
2.9.4.1 Transitive Verb
Transitive verb is the verb that has an NP object. Examples of transitive
verbs are given in Uneme language:
[mìòlílé]
‘seize’
[òkpòsò
míòlílé
ónòàbí
òdíkí òmosè]
‘she
seize
mat
from him
‘she seized the mat from him’
[mú] ‘catch’
[mú ónó
onõgbò]
catch the
cat
‘catch the cat’
In the above examples, the verb has an NP object through the data.
lxxx
2.9.4.2 Intransitive Verb
Intransitive verb is a verb that has no object NP.
[òhúni]
‘die’
[mià]
‘dance’
[òkpósò
òhúnì]
‘she
die’
[òmosè
mia]
he
dance
‘he danced’
2.9.5 Adjectives
Darbyshire (1967: 127) defined adjectives as a lexeme which occurs
typically in the premodification of nouns. Examples in the language are:
[íkwá] ‘hot’
[ahe ónò
íkwá]
food the
hot
‘the food is hot’
lxxxi
2.9.6 Adverb
An adverb is a lexeme which occurs typically as an adjunct in a verb group
(Darbyshire 1967: 135). Examples in Uneme are shown below:
[olélegbè]
‘completely’
[mose gbi
éhà
he
goat completely
kill
olelégbè]
‘he killed the goat completely’
[òfiefiè]
‘slowly’
2.9.7 Determiners
According to Darbyshire (1967: 139) determiner is a word which act as an
adjunct premodifying a noun which shows its head to be a noun. Examples in
Uneme language are shown below:
[oníní]
‘that’
[nà]
‘this’
[ìkáwã]
‘your’
2.9.8 Preposition
Preposition is used to indicate the position of things and it precedes a
nominal segment or pronoun. Examples are shown below:
lxxxii
[aìmonì]
‘behind’
[ìsálonì]
‘beyond’
[isésevà]
‘on’
[fonì]
‘by’
[lkonì]
‘about’
[emónikiò] ‘before’
2.10 Basic Phonological Concept
The basic phonological aspect is being focused in Uneme language here,
some phonological phenomena like sound inventory, concerning Uneme
consonants and vowels.
2.10.1 Consonant Sounds in Uneme Language
Yusuf (1992: 18) described consonants as sound produced by obstructing
the airflow totally or partially at some point in the tract. Uneme attests (29)
consonants which are as follows:
p
b
t
d
k
g
kw
gw
dʒ
m
n
f
v
s
z

h
ɽ
ts
x
Ɣ
ɲ
kp
gb
vw
w.
lxxxiii
r
l
j
Uneme attests (29) consonants, the sounds are represented with the aid
Fricative
f
v
vw
m
s z

ts
dʒ
n
Lateral
l
Tap
ɽ
Trill
r
Labialized
velar
k g
kp gb
K w gw
x Ɣ
ɲ
Approximant
j
2.10.2 Distribution of Consonants Sounds in Uneme
Plosives
/p/ Voiceless Bilabial Plosive
Medial
[opia]
‘matchet’
/b/ Voiced Bilabial Plosive
lxxxiv
glottal
Labio
velar
Palatal
Palato
alveolar
t d
Affricative
Nasal
Alveolar
Labialized
labio
dental
p b
Velar
Plosive
Labio
dental
Bilabial
of diagram below:
h
Medial
[bé]
‘wall’
[ébè]
‘leaf’
lxxxv
/t/
Voiceless Alveolar Plosive
Initial
[tòròsé]
‘descend’
[témìse]
‘give’
Medial
[otọi]
‘ground’
[ítmì]
‘hot’
/d/ Voiced Alveolar Plosuve
Initial
[dìkùa]
‘pour’
[dukpo]
‘weave’
Medial
[ódè] ‘door’
[ódod]
/k/
‘road’
Voiceless Velar Plosive
Initial
[kùnífàmè] ‘urinate’
[kùóyá]
‘open’
lxxxvi
Medial
[àki]
‘market’
[àkéré]
‘toad’
/g/ Voiced Velar Plosive
Initial
[gusí]
‘to lie down’
[gògúra]
‘to break’
Medial
[úgwò]
‘bone’
[ógò]
‘day’
/kw/ Voiceless Labialized Plosive
Medial
[ikwì] ‘iron’
/gw/
Medial
[igwíjàbo]
‘arm’
[igwélémí]
‘to beat’
/kp/ Voiceless Labio-Velar Plosive
lxxxvii
Medial
[kpá]
‘bag’
[kposo]
‘woman’
lxxxviii
/gb/ Voiced Labio-Velar Plosive
Initial
[gbetò]
‘to plait hair’
[gbigíló]
‘tp dance’
Medial
[egbè]
‘body’
[ágbófí]
‘orange’
/dʒ/ Voiced Palato-Alveolar Affricate
Medial
[idзàw]
‘okra’
[igwídзàbo] ‘arm’
/ts/ Voiceless Alveolar Affricate
Medial
[útsmí]
‘head’
[itsue]
‘nose’
/f/
Voiceless Labio Dental Fricative
Initial
[fùnùá]
‘extinguish’
lxxxix
[fíegbednegbè]
‘to return’
xc
Medial
[afiàmì]
‘bird’
[úfí]
‘room’
/v/
Voiced Labio-Dental Fricative
Initial
[vì]
‘close’
Medial
[úkpev]
‘penis’
[ovi]
‘sunshine’
/vw/ Voiced Labialized Labio-Dental
Medial
[vwi]
‘town’
[vwé]
‘goat’
/s/
Voiceless Alveolar Fricative
Initial
[suyóló]
‘to sing’
[sú]
‘pierce’
Medial
xci
[ís]
‘feaces’
[ósámí]
‘hunger’
/z/
Voiced Alveolar Fricative
Medial
[ózúnam] ‘in law’
[ozì]
‘crab’
/ɲ/ Voiceless Palato-Alveolar Fricative
Initial
[ɲólùrù]
‘to spin thread’
Medial
[úk[áɲ]
‘star’
[wɲ]
‘dream’
/h/ Voiceless Glottal Fricative
Medial
[ih]
‘fight’
[h]
‘smoke’
/x/
Voiceless Velar Fricative
xcii
Medial
[oxà]
‘story’
[íxamì]
‘heavy’
xciii
/ɣ/
Voiced Velar fricative
Medial
[uɣuai]
‘legs’
[íɣãi]
‘basket’
Nasals
/m/ Bilabial Nasal
Initial
[mírì]
‘to ask’
[mùsá]
‘stand’
Medial
[úmé]
‘salt’
[m ]
‘ashes’
/n/ Alveolar Nasal
Initial
[nògwésù]
‘to sleep’
[nwejéva]
‘twenty-two’
Medial
xciv
[ónmì]
‘tongue’
[éné]
‘four’
/ɲ/ Palatal Nasal
Medial
[áɲúdì]
‘palm wine’
[ìɲó]
‘mother’
/l/
Voiced Alveolar Lateral
Initial
[lotó]
‘sit’
[lòw]
‘to enter’
Medial
[émàlè]
‘food’
[órúlú]
‘cotton’
/r/
Voiced Alveolar Trill
Medial
[árũ]
‘hat’
[ora]
‘tree’
xcv
/ɽ/
Voiced Alveolar Tap
Medial
[órìrì]
‘oil’
[rèrà]
‘kolanut’
/j/
Voiced Palatal Liquid
Medial
[kaja]
‘work’
[ùkpji]
‘small’
/w/ Voiced Bilabial Approximant
Initial
[wòs]
‘dream’
[wás]
‘come’
Medial
[idзaw]
‘okra’
[owùã]
‘sheep’
2.10.3 Uneme Vowel System
Vowels are produced with a vocal tract configuration sufficiently open so
xcvi
that the air inside and outside the mouth is approximately equal. Vowel sounds
are not produced with any form of constriction in the vocal tract.
Uneme attest to seven (7) oral vowel system and five (5) nasal vowels.
The re listed and represented diagrammatically below;
xcvii
2.10.3.1 Uneme Oral Vowel
i

e
a
Front
High

o
Central
Back
i
Mid-high
u
u
e
Mid-low
o

ε
Low
a
2.10.3.2 Uneme Nasal Vowels
Front
High
Central
Back
ĩ
Mid-high
Ũ


Mid-low
low
ã
xcviii
xcix
2.10.4 Distribution of Vowels
/i/
High Front Unrounded Vowel
Initial
[ís]
‘blood’
[ínì]
‘elephant’
Medial
[abìf]
‘wing’
[píá]
‘matchet’
Final
[ùnúmì]
‘bush’
[utsomi]
‘head’
/u/ High Back Rounded Vowel
Initial
[úkplò]
‘eye’
[ùkè]
‘back’
Medial
[owúx]
‘he goat’
[idúmì]
‘to carry’
c
Final
[íkù]
‘rubbish heap’
[‘òkú]
‘sea’
/e/
Mid-High Front Unrounded Vowel
Initial
[éts]
‘ear’
[émàlè]
‘food’
Medial
[údènù]
‘needle’
[gbéde]
‘dawn’
Final
[jesé]
‘to arrive’
[úrè]
‘snail’
/o/
Mid-High Back Rounded Vowel
Initial
[órà] ‘tree’
[ód] ‘door’
Medial
ci
[ófòà]
‘mouse’
[íhokà]
‘children’
Final
[agid]
‘hunter’
[otù]
‘to greet’
// Mid-Low Back Rounded Vowel
Initial
[b]
‘wall’
[tsa]
‘one’
Medial
[vì] ‘close’
[ifmì]
‘to wash’
Final
[eh]
‘fetish’
[m]
‘ashes’
/a/
Low Back Unrounded Vowel
Initial
[àk]
‘teeth’
cii
[ànogbò]
‘cat’
Medial
[idamì]
‘to jump’
[íkálmì]
‘count’
Final
[erà]
‘firewood’
[akoga]
‘bat’
CHAPTER THREE
QUESTION FORMATION
3.0
Introduction
This chapter will focus on Uneme question types. The following question
types will be examined:
i.
Information seeking question
ii.
Questions with Yes/No answer
iii.
Tag question
iv.
Adjunction question
Question formation is the way we derive question interrogatively in some
sentence types, from the basic sentences (declarative) to interrogative
ciii
sentences. Question formation is a major type of sentence, typically used to elicit
information in a response and explain variously according to grammatical,
phonological, semantic or on socio-linguistics ground in contrast with statement,
command and exclamation in a given natural language. The desire and
willingness to know can prompt someone to ask a question.
civ
3.1
Question Types
3.1.1 WH or Information Seeking Question
The information seeking question is also known as the ‘WH’ question in
English language. Information seeking questions are posed in Uneme language
with the use of WH element at the initial slot of a sentence. In Information
seeking question two movements are required for its derivation, for declarative
sentences. The first is the application of Aux-NP inversion rule and second is the
application of the movement rule, that is the movement of question constituent
from its original position within the declarative sentence to the presentential
position which is called movement. The following examples support the existence
of information seeking questions in Uneme. The information seeking question
markers in Uneme are:
/bola/
‘where’
/lelà/
‘when’
/gonoki/
‘which’
/la/
‘who’
1a.
Basic Sentence
Paul ofálojà
cv
‘Paul paid’
b.
Derived Sentence
olà
ofálojà
‘who paid?’
2a.
Basic Sentence
Kola gbi
Patrick
‘Kola beat Patrick’
2b.
Derived Sentence
Olà
3a.
ata
Kolá gbé
‘Who did
Kola beat’
ìtáyò eni
okpo-malu
‘tayo lives at opo-malu
b.
Derived Sentence
obì
okia ìtáyò eni
‘where does tayo lives’
cvi
Basic Sentence
1a. Paul ofaloja
Paul pay
‘Paul paid’
IP
Spec
I’
NP
N’
I
VP
TNS AGR
V’
[Pst]
N
V
Paul
ofaloja
Paul
pay
‘Paul paid’
cvii
1b.
Olà
Who
‘who
Derived Sentence
ofáljà
pay
paid’
CP
Spec
Q-M
C’
C
IP
Spec
I’
NP
N’
I
TNS AGR
N
olà
VP
V’
V
[ti]
ofalojà
who
pay
cviii
‘who paid?’
2a.
Basic Sentence
Kola gbi
Patrick
‘Kolá beat Patrick’
IP
Spec
I’
NP
N’
I
VP
TNS AGR
V’
NP
V
N’
[Pst]
N
N
Kolá
gbi
cix
Patrick
kolá
beat
‘Kola beat Patrick’
cx
patric
2b. Derived Sentence
Olà ata Kolá gbi
‘who did kola beat’
CP
Spec
Q-M
C’
C
IP
Spec
NP
I’
I
VP
V’
N’
TNS AGR
V
N
NP
N’
N
cxi
Olà
ata
Kolá
gbi
‘who did kola beat’
3a. Basic Sentence
ìtáyò eni okpo-malu
tayo live opo-malu
‘tayo lives at opo-malu’
IP
Spec
I’
NP
I
VP
V’
N’
TNS AGR
N’
[Pst]
N
ìtáyò
tayo
V
N
eni okpo-malu
live opo-malu
‘tayo lives at opo-malu’
cxii
3b. Derived Sentence
obì okia ìtáyò eni
where does tayo live
‘where does tayo lives?’
CP
Spec
Q-M
C’
C
IP
Spec
NP
I’
I
VP
V’
N’
TNS AGR
V
N
NP
N’
N
cxiii
obì
where
okia ìtáyò
does tayo
eni
[t;]
live
‘where does tayo lives?’
The information seeking question markers used in the above examples
are:
/bola/
‘where’
/lelà/
‘when’
/gonoki/
‘which’
/la/
‘who’
ii.
Questions with Yes/No Answer
These are questions derived from the declarative statement through AUX-
NP inversion rule. We can derive questions with Yes/No answers by making the
NP in a declarative sentence swap position with the INFL element or AGR, TNS,
MODAL COPULAS OR ASPECT.
Question with Yes/No answers in Uneme are illustrated below:
1a.
Basic Sentence
Paul di
imòtó
‘Paul bought a car’
b.
Derived Sentence
ata
paul di
mòtó re
cxiv
‘did paul buy a car?’
2a.
Basic Sentence
éhá
ónò
li
iya
ónò
‘the goat eat the yam’
b.
Derived Sentence
atá éhá ónò lí
ìyà
‘did the goat ate the yam?’
1a. Basic Sentence
Paul di
mòtó
Paul buy car
‘Paul bought a car’
IP
ónò
Spec
I’
NP
I
VP
V’
N’
TNS AGR
V
NP
[Pst]
N
N’
cxv
N
Paul
di
Paul
buy
‘Paul bought a car’
1b. Derived Sentence
atá paul di
mòtó re
did paul buy car a
‘did paul buy a car?’
C’
C
IP
Q-M Spec
NP
N’
I’
I
VP
TNS AGR
V’
cxvi
mòtó
car
N
V
NP
N’
N
atá
did
paul
paul
di
mòtó
buy car
‘did paul buy a car?’
2a. Basic Sentence
éhá ónò li
iya
ónò
goat the eat yam ate
‘the goat ate the yam’
IP
Spec
NP
N’
Det
I’
I
TNS AGR
VP
V’
cxvii
Det
re
a
[Pst]
N
V
NP
N’
N
éhá
goat
ónò
the
li
iya
eat yam
‘the goat ate the yam’
cxviii
Det
ónò
ate
2b. Derived Sentence
atá éhá ónò lí
ìyà
ónò
did goat the eat yam the
‘did the goat ate the yam?’
CP
Spec
C’
C
IP
Spec
NP
N’
Det
I’
I
VP
TNS AGR
V’
N
V
NP
N’
atá
did
éhá ónò
goat the
‘did the goat ate the yam?’
lí
eat
cxix
N
Det
ìyà
yam
ónò
the
iii.
Tag Question
Tag questions in Uneme conform strictly that of English language, in such
a way that, if the question is positive, the answer is negative.
Examples of tag questions in Uneme are practically given below:
1.
Omosè
kini
o
He
could be
kia
ke
òmosè
your friend,
he
‘he could be your friend, couldn’t he?’
2.
je
ki
tie
You
have call
Esther,
je
no?
Esther,
you
haven’t
‘you have called Esther, haven’t you?’
3.
ikémé ebe
it
no
book my
ìkémé
iki?
it
isn’t
‘it is my book, isn’t it?’
4
eva
se
they will
ne
eva
o?
go,
they won’t?
‘they will go, won’t they?’
cxx
ki
couldn’t
The markers for tag questions in Uneme are:
/o/
‘won’t’
/kí/
‘couldn’t’
/iki/
‘isn’t’
/no/ ‘haven’t’
According to Crystal (1987: 423), tag question is a way of inviting
confirmation of a statement which has the force of an exclamation rather than
genuine question. Tag question is a string usually consisting of an auxiliary and a
pronoun which is added into the end of a sentence.
Examples of tag questions in Uneme are practically given below:
1.
Omose
kini
o
He
could be
kia
ke
òmosè
your friend,
‘He could be your friend couldn’t he?’
cxxi
he
ki
couldn’t
IP
IP
Conj
Spec
NP
I’
I
IP
Ø
Spec
VP
NP
N’ TNS Modal Agr V’
N’
Pro
Pro
Omose
He
V
NP
I’
I
VP
TNS Agr
V’
V0
NP
Det N’
N’
N
N
kini o kia ke
could be your friend,
òmosè
ki
he
couldn’t
cxxii
‘He could be your friend couldn’t he?’
2
je
ki
tie
esther je
no?
You
have call
esther you
haven’t’
‘you have called Esther, haven’t you?’
IP
IP
Conj
Spec
NP
I’
I
IP
Ø
Spec
VP
NP
N’ TNS Modal Agr V’
N’
Pro
Pro
V
NP
I’
I
VP
TNS Agr
V’
V0
Det N’
NP
N’
cxxiii
N
N
je
You
ki
tie esther je
have call esther you
‘you have called Esther, haven’t you?’
3.
ikéme ebe
It
no
book my
no
haven’t’
ìkémé iki?
it
isn’t
‘it is my bood, isn’t it?’
4.
evà
se
They will
n
e
eva
o
go,
they won’t?
‘they will go, won’t they?’
cxxiv
Ø
IP
IP
Conj
Spec
NP
I’
I
IP
Ø
Spec
VP
NP
N’ TNS Modal Agr V’
N’
Pro
Pro
V
I’
I
VP
TNS Agr
V’
V0
NP
N’
N
evà
se
ne
eva
o
cxxv
Ø
they
will
go,
they
won’t?
‘they will go, won’t they?’
However, it is good to note that in all the examples, it can be examined
that the different markers are used in forming questions in Uneme. The tag
question in the above examples are clause on their own, which is attached to
another sentence to form a tag question.
The marker for tag question in the above examples are:
/o/
‘won’t’
/kí/
‘couldn’t’
/iki/
‘isn’t’
/no/ ‘haven’t’
iv.
Adjunction Question
Adjunction question is similar to Yes/No in Uneme language. That is both
questions follow similar pattern. An adjunction question is when an item is
adjoined to be a system to another node, for example a question with Yes/No
answer can be added to a statement to provide additional information. The
special marker is adjoined to the S-node. The elements added are usually not
compulsory, but may be added to a question with Yes/NO answer to function as
cxxvi
complement for the questions with Yes/No answer.
Adjunctions are exemplified in Uneme in the following examples:
cxxvii
1a.
Basic Sentence
je
va
you
modal sleep
òwè
‘you will sleep’
1b.
Derived Sentence
va
je
modal you
òwè
sleep
‘will you sleep?’
2a.
Basic Sentence
òmosè
ókí
rie
loni
‘he has taken it’
2b.
Derived Sentence
oki
òmosè
modal he
rie
loni
take it
‘has he taken it?’
1a.
Basic Sentence
je
va
you
modal sleep
òwè
cxxviii
‘you will sleep’
cxxix
IP
Spec
NP
N’
I’
I
VP
TNS AGR Modal
V’
Pron
je
you
V
va
òwè
modal
sleep
‘you will sleep’
cxxx
1b. Derived Sentence
va
je
òwè
modal you sleep
‘will you sleep’
CP
Spec
C’
C
IP
I’
Spec
Q-M NP
I
VP
TNS AGR Modal V’
N’
V
N
cxxxi
va
modal
je
[ti]
you
‘will you sleep’
òwè
sleep
2a. Basic Sentence
omosè
ókí
rie
lonì
he
has take it
‘he has taken it’
IP
Spec
NP
N’
I’
I
VP
TNS AGR Modal
V’
Pron
V
NP
N’
N
cxxxii
omosè
he
ókí
rie
has
take
‘he has taken it’
cxxxiii
lonì
it
2b. Derived Sentence
oki
òmosè
rie
loni
modal he
take it
‘has he taken it?’
CP
Spec
C’
C
IP
I’
Spec
Q-M NP
I
VP
TNS AGR Modal V’
[ti]
N’
V
N
NP
N’
N
cxxxiv
oki
òmosè
modal he
‘has he taken it?’
rie
loni
take it
In concluding this chapter, I have been able to examine the various
question formation in Uneme and the processes attested in the language which
include:
1.
WH or information seeking question and the markers in Uneme are:
/ɔbola/
‘where’
/lelà/
‘when’
[gonoki/
‘which’
/ɔla/
‘who’
2.
Questions with Yes/No answer
In Yes/No questions “ata” (did) is commonly used in formulating this type
of question in Uneme language, e.g.
Basic Sentence
Paul di
mòtó
‘Paul bought a car’
Derived Sentence
cxxxv
“ata” Paul di
mòtó re
Did
Paul buy
a
3.
Adjunction question: this is similar to Yes/No question in Uneme, is
car?
when an item is adjoined to be a system to another node.
e.g.
Basic Sentence
je
va
you
modal sleep
òwè
‘you will sleep’
Derived Sentence
Va
je
Modal you
òwè
sleep
‘will you sleep?’
4.
Tag question: Tag question in Uneme conforms strictly with that of
English language, in such a way that, if the question is positive, the answer is
negative.
The markers for tag questions in Uneme are:
/o/
‘won’t’
/kí/
‘couldn’t’
cxxxvi
/iki/
‘isn’t’
/no/ ‘haven’t’
All these question formation are attested in Uneme language.
cxxxvii
CHAPTER FOUR
TRANSFORMATIONAL PROCESSES
4.0
Introduction
Transformation is defined by Pei (1996) as a theory, treating most
sentences as derivations from more basic sentence, with rules for deriving them.
In this chapter, the focus will be on transformational processes in Uneme, such
transformational processes include; focus construction, relativization and
reflexivization.
4.1
Focus Construction in Uneme
Stockwell (1977: 157) described focus construction as a way of introducing
special marking into the surface structure of the elements that is being focused.
He therefore equates focus with prominence. Prominence in focusing is
phonologically determined by intonation. Focusing is a universal syntactic
process, this is so because it is normal for a speaker of any language to want to
emphasize a specific aspect of his or her message while communicating with his
or her interlocutor.
The subject NP, object NP, indirect object can be focused on in Uneme in
such a way that the subject can appear at the initial position, the subject NP can
cxxxviii
also be at the medial position. Also, indirect object NP focusing and predicate
cleft NP focusing.
Basic Sentence
Adé mo óhà ní
bola
Ade build house for
Bola
‘Ade built a house for Bola’
IP
Spec
I’
NP
N’
I
VP
TNS Agr
V’
[pst]
N
V
NP
N’
N
PP
P
NP
N’
cxxxix
N
Adé
mo óhà ní
Ade
build house for
‘Ade built a house for Bola’
bola
Bola
cxl
4.1.1 Subject NP Focusing
Adé
ɔle
o;
mo
òhá
ni
Ade
focus he
build house for
‘Ade is the one that built house for Bola’
bola
Bola
FP
Spec
NP
F’
F
IP
N’
Spec
N
NP
I’
I
VP
TNS AGR V’
[Pst]
N’
V
NP
N
N’
N
PP
P’
P
NP
N’
N
cxli
Adé
ɔle
o;
Ade
focus
he
‘Ade is the one that built house for Bola’
mo
build
òhá
ni
house for
bola
Bola
4.1.2 Direct Object NP Focusing
Bola
ɔle
Ade,
mo
óhà
ni
Bola
focus Ade
build house for
Marker
‘Bola is the one that Ade built house for’
Ei
FP
Spec
NP
F’
F
IP
N’
Spec
N
NP
I’
I
VP
TNS AGR V’
[Pst]
N’
V
NP
N
N’
N
PP
P’
P
cxlii
NP
N’
N
Bola
ɔle
Ade,
Bola
focus Ade
‘Bola is the one that Ade built house for’
4.1.3 Indirect Object NP Focusing
mo
build
[oha
ɔle
ade
mo
House foc
Ade
built
‘it is house that Ade built for Bola’
Bola]
Bola
Ei
mi
for
óhà
ni
house for
Ei
FP
Spec
NP
F’
F
IP
N’
Spec
N
NP
I’
I
VP
TNS AGR V’
[Pst]
N’
V
NP
N
N’
N
PP
P’
cxliii
P
NP
N’
N
oha
ɔle
ade
House
foc
Ade
‘it is house that Ade built for Bola’
4.1.4 Predicate Cleft NP Focusing
mo
built
[imami
ɔle
adé
mo
àhó
ní
Build
foc
Ade
build house for
‘it is built that Ade build house for Bola’
Ei
mi
for
Bola]
Bola
FP
Spec
NP
F’
F
IP
N’
Spec
N
NP
I’
I
VP
TNS AGR V’
[Pst]
N’
V
NP
N
N’
cxliv
Bola
Bola
N
PP
P’
P
NP
N’
N
imami
ɔle
adé
Build
foc
Ade
‘it is built that Ade build house for Bola’
mo
build
àhó
ní
house for
Bola
Bola
It should be noted in the above examples in Uneme that, the element
being focused in moved to the beginning of the sentence. The focus marker in
the language is ‘/ɔle/.’
4.2
Relativization in Uneme
Stockwell (1977), asserts that a relative clause is “a sentence embedded
(surface structure) as modifier of an NP, the embedded sentence having within it
a WH-pronominal replacement for a deep structure NP which is in some sense
identical with the head NP when relativization takes place the subject NP in the
second sentence (i.e. the embedded clause) get replaced by a relative pronoun
and is moved into the complementizer position of the embedded clause.
cxlv
The example of relativized sentences are given below:
1.
[esther
li
ahe
no
Esther
eat
food that
mi
male]
I
cook
‘Esther ate the food that I cooked’
cxlvi
IP
Spec
CP
NP
Spec
N’
N
C’
C
VP
Spec
V’
V
IP
REL
NP
I’
NP
I
VP
N’
TNS AGR V’
[Pst]
N’
Pron
V
mi
male
I
cook
N
Esther li
ahe
no
Esther eat
food that
cxlvii
‘Esther ate the food that I cooked’
2.
[kola ódì mótò gònòkì
ole doloni
Kola buy car which
was steal
‘Kola bought a car which was stolen’
IP
Spec
CP
NP
Spec
N’
N
C’
C
VP
Spec
V’
V
IP
REL
NP
I’
NP
I
VP
N’
TNS AGR V’
[Pst]
cxlviii
N’
Pron
V
N
kola ódì
mótò gònòkì ole
doloni
Kola buy
car which was
steal
‘Kola bought a car which was stolen’
3.
[lawani
krásénì
wosè no
lawani
love
girl that
‘lawani loves the girl that died’
hùì]
die
IP
Spec
CP
NP
Spec
N’
N
C’
C
VP
V’
IP
Spec
REL
I’
I
VP
cxlix
V
NP
TNS AGR V’
[Pst]
N’
V
N
lawani krásénì
wosè no
lawani love
girl that
‘lawani loves the girl that died’
hùì
die
As observed in the examples given above, the relative markers are:
/no/
‘that’
/gònòkì/
‘which’
4.3
Reflexivization
Reflexives are pronouns like
[òlélé]
‘himself’
[ólélé]
‘herself’
[èlelí]
‘themselves’
[wáwã]
‘ourselves’
But, in Government and Binding theory they are referred to as ‘Anaphors’.
Anaphors are phrasal categories that require antecedental NPs, such as above;
meaning that they always have antecedent in the sentence rather than outside
it. Below are examples of reflexivized sentences in Uneme.
1.
[òviè gbi
òlélé]
Ovie beat herself’
cl
IP
Spec
NP
N’
N
I’
I
VP
TNS AGR
V’
V
NP
N’
Pron
òviè
gbi
òlélé
Ovie
beat
herself
cli
2.
[lawanì
krásénì
òlélé]
Lawani
love
himself
‘Lawani loves himself’
IP
Spec
I’
NP
I
N’
VP
TNS AGR
N
V’
V
NP
N’
Pron
lawanì
krásénì
òlélé
Lawani
love
himself
‘Lawani loves himself’
clii
3.
[wawã
kíasí wáwã]
We
hate ourselves
‘we hate ourselves’
IP
Spec
NP
N’
I’
I
VP
TNS AGR
N
V’
V
NP
N’
Pron
wawã
kíasí
wáwã
We
hate
ourselves
‘we hate ourselves’
cliii
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION
5.0
Introduction
In this chapter, the focus will be on the summary, recommendations and
conclusion of all the other chapters.
5.1
Summary
This essay has examined the various ways of forming questions in Uneme
language. The first chapter of this essay focused on the Uneme people, whose
origin is traceable to the core area of the Nok culture zone located in the NorthEast of the Niger-Benue confluence. The Uneme language is classified under the
Edoid language family. The chapter also examines their socio-cultural profile like
religion, occupation, etc. The theoretical framework to be used was also
discussed in the last part of this chapter.
Chapter two focused on the basic syntactic concepts and phonological
concepts of Uneme language and this includes, how sentences are formed in
Uneme language and we were able to know from here that Uneme attests an
SVO word order.
Furthermore, in chapter two, simple, compound and complex sentences
cliv
were described and illustrated. Uneme language attests Noun, verb, pronoun,
adverb, adjective, preposition and conjunction.
The focus of this research work “Question Formation in Uneme language”
was examined in chapter three. We were able to bring out the different types of
question attested in Uneme. They are, information-seeking question also known
as WH-question in English, Yes/No question, tag question and adjunction
questions.
The types of transformational process in Uneme language were examined
in chapter four. The process includes; focus construction, relativization and
reflexivization. How focus construction is derived in Uneme are illustrated with
Uneme examples. Lastly reflexivization in Uneme were illustrated.
Finally, chapter five which is the concluding chapter has the summary,
recommendations and conclusion.
5.2
Recommendations
In case of further research on this language recommendation will be made
to the government and the policy makers, the teachers and the students.
1.
Government and Policymakers
clv
The government should try to pay attention to the minority languages in
which Uneme happens to be one. Since Nigeria is a multilingual nation with over
420 languages, the minority languages should not be allowed to go extinct. The
government and policymakers should assign roles for these languages, even if
just to be taught in primary schools where they are spoken in other to have
speakers of the language.
2.
Language Teachers
The language teachers should be given adequate training to teach the
language. This can be done by equipping them with the necessary materials
needed for teaching.
3.
Students
Students should be interested in learning their indigenous languages By
doing so, they will not depart from the culture and the moral teaching in their
language. I hope that this project will serve as a stepping stone for further
research on Uneme language.
5.3
Conclusion
In the course of this research some few things were discovered in the
language, such as;
clvi
1. The basic word order attested in Uneme which is subject, verb and object
(SVO)
2. The language is basically head first except for adjective phrases.
3. It was also discovered in the language that some words mark past tense
for examples:
di
‘buy’
odi
‘bought’
This essay has been able to analyze various ways employed in forming
questions. We have considered the information seeking questions, Yes/No
questions,
adjunction
transformational
questions
processes
like
and
the
tag
relativization,
reflexivization were dealt with.
clvii
questions.
focus
Also,
the
construction
and
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