The Reign of Richard III
Richard’s Usurpation
On the death of Edward, Elizabeth Woodville tried claiming the regency (probably due to her
fear of Richard and other anti Woodville nobles) however the Council refused and appointed
Richard (Gloucester) as protector until Edward V was crowned in a few months (as Edward
was only 12 it was most likely that Gloucester would continue as protector until Edward was
16). Gloucester’s and the Woodville’s distrust of each other was equal, and on 29th April
1483 Richard and Stafford (Buckingham) intercepted a large group of Woodvilles at Stony
Stratford who were taking Edward V to London. At the time, Richard claimed it was to
safeguard Edward V and abide by the terms of Edward IV’s will (that Richard would become
protector), however the next day Earl Rivers was arrested and dispatched to Pontefract for
later execution along with Richard Grey (Edward V’s half brother) and Vaughan (Edward
IV’s treasurer).
Edward IV’s policies towards the nobles meant there would be a struggle for power over his
sons on his death, which would intensify factional conflict that had ravaged his council. It is
important to acknowledge that Richard’s early moves were quite popular; due to the fear of
the Woodvilles, people were quite happy with Richard becoming protector.
Short term causes of the usurpation
Edward’s creation of an inner circle of magnates led to dissatisfaction, with nobles such as
Buckingham having no reason to be loyal to the heirs of Edward IV. These tensions between
the inner circle of Richard, the Woodvilles and Hastings could not be controlled after
Edward’s death. Although this created a crisis as to who would control Edward V, this did
not have to end in usurpation.
It can be argued it was a mistake to give Edward V a Woodville upbringing; prominent
figures such as Buckingham saw him as a pawn of the Woodvilles, and Edward V’s anger at
Richard’s arrest of the Woodvilles meant Richard could expect swift revenge when Edward
took the throne; defendants of Richard would suggest that to destroy the Woodville threat he
had to seize the throne, however it is possible to challenge this view. If this was the case then
surely Hastings too would be forced into rebellion (he was happy to remove the Woodvilles,
or at least from a Woodville education) however he was not interested in removing Edward
V.
Inherent Problems
The actual usurpation itself is incredibly controversial; we have a knowledge of what the key
events are, however they are interpreted in different ways. Some historians have tried to
absolve or at least limit the blame attached to Richard, whereas as others such as Warren
suggest it was a part of a long term plan driven by “ruthless ambition”.
One of the biggest problems for historians investigating the usurpation is the limited evidence
and its unreliable nature; the works of Thomas More and Polydore Vergil’s “ Historica
Anglia” were both produced in the subsequent Tudor reign and thus promote Richard’s
insatiable lust for power. In addition to this, as these pieces were written with the benefit of
hindsight they go to great lengths to try and link Richard’s various actions together as part of
a coherent plan (when there is a strong argument that he was reacting to events as they
occurred and that he did not have a systematic plan).
The key events of the usurpation
-29th April 1483 Richard and Stafford (Buckingham) intercepted a large group of Woodvilles
at Stony Stratford who were taking Edward V to London. At the time, Richard claimed it was
to safeguard Edward V and abide by the terms of Edward IV’s will (that Richard would
become protector), however the next day Earl Rivers was arrested and dispatched to
Pontefract for later execution along with Richard Grey (Edward V’s half brother) and
Vaughan (Edward IV’s treasurer).
-On 22nd June Dr Ralph Shaw (under the instruction of Richard) preached at St Paul’s Cross
and claimed that Edward IV’s children were illegitimate as he had allegedly ignored a pre
contract to another woman, Lady Eleanor Butler. The chronicler Mancini also reports that
Richard declared Edward IV illegitimate, spreading the rumour that he was the son of an
archer called Blaybourne.
-This sermon was important because Richard was already protector at this point. What he was
possibly trying to do was to try and win support in London for his planned usurpation (he
already had considerable support in the north).
-There is evidence to suggest this was believed by many, and secured the approval from
Londoners for Richard’s accession on 24th June. Two days later, Parliament offered him the
throne. Whilst it could be argued that Richard’s failure to use force shows that his usurpation
was relatively popular, this was only achieved through the latent threat of Richard’s northern
army. When the Lords and Mps offered him the crown (which he pretended to be reluctant to
take before accepting), they had little choice given Richard’s power and his cunning political
manoeuvrings.
Ways in which Richard’s actions could be defended
One way of defending Richard comes in the form of the Titulus Regius, a petition that
originated in the north in June 1483 and was eventually made statute (law) in 1484. The
Titulus Regius (a copy of which was sent to the Calais Garrison in an attempt to secure their
support) asked Richard to take the crown, suggesting that this would be conducive to good
government, would be of benefit to the Common weal (the people as a whole) and would
help restore law and order which had collapsed under Edward. The Titulus Regius also
sought to invalidate the claims of Edward IV’s children suggesting the marriage between
Edward and Elizabeth Woodvillle was made without the assent of the Lords and due to
sorcery on the part of Elizabeth Woodville’s mother. The Titulus Regius demonstrates the
significant support that Richard had in the north, and is used by some to suggest that he was
pushed into seizing the throne by his supporters in the north. Although it is likely that
Richard played some role in drawing up the Titulus Regius, the support it received
demonstrates that there was significant support in the north for Richard’s usurpation, and in
this area at least the usurpation was popular!
NB- the story that circulated about Edward IV being a bastard was not part of the Titulus
Regius, and this rumour circulated separately.
Towards the end of his reign, Edward’s court was unpopular, with Richard withdrawing to
the north (where he had a reputation for good government) in protest to the Woodville’s
dominance. The fact Richard was named as Protector by the council on Edward’s death could
upset people on it (as he was an outsider) giving some credibility to the argument that
Richard was under threat from others.
There is some evidence that the charge of treason against Woodvilles (which was also used to
implicate Hastings) has some credit, with cartloads of Woodville arms that had been brought
to London (and which displayed the Woodville insignia) displayed by Richard.
How Richard attempted to secure his position having become King
Richard initially attempted to secure his position through the use of patronage, rewarding
nobles such as Howard and Buckingham (and any other figures who had been wronged by
either Edward or the Woodvilles) in an attempt to secure their support and widen his support
base so as to include prominent figures from the south.
Buckingham was a particularly useful ally given the fact he was a southerner (most of
Richard’s support came from the north) and his intense hatred of the Woodvilles; he had been
forced to marry one by Edward (which he saw as marrying below his status) and saw his
power reduced in Wales by Edward and the Woodvilles to the extent that he could not even
get on the Council of Wales. In order to cultivate this friendship, Richard made Buckingham
Chamberlain of North and South Wales, restoring much of the power he had lost.
Richard also rewarded those loyal to him; Thomas Howard was made the Earl of Surrey by
Richard in 1483 and Richard continued to reward northerners such as Tyrell, and ensured that
Viscount Lovel was made Lord Chamberlain in 1483.
In order to become accepted as King it was however essential that he was accepted by those
not bound to him by self interest- Richard couldn’t give patronage to everybody! The Titulus
Regius was clearly an attempt to win him support outside of the north, by making him look
both popular ad powerful although the success of this was limited, a shown by his inability to
win over the south by 1485
One of Richard’s first significant actions as king was to go on a royal progress to try and gain
support. During this progress Pontefract was made a borough (given special priveleges), and
Richard made a particularly grand entrance into York in order to display his regal status.
Although Richard can be criticised for sticking to areas of the country in which he knew he
was popular (the north and Gloucester) when in fact he should have gone to other areas to try
and win support, one of the reasons for his progress was to impress the southern household
men who travelled with him (who had previously been Edward’s) and threaten the south by
showing the extent of his support in the north.
This progress was not however simply symbolic- it was designed to be a functioning and
practical judicial progress, in which Richard invited complaints against wrongs committed by
Edward’s regime. Although this was to some extent an attempt to discredit Edward it does
also demonstrate the commitment of Richard towards law, order and justice (rather than win
people round, it would actually anger lots of Ed Iv’s supporters, and turn them against
Richard!) Richard consulted the various regional judges about defects in the law, sat in on
certain trials and ensured local offenders were correctly punished. This apparent commitment
of Richard to justice appears to be more than a publicity stunt, and is further reinforced by his
decision to establish the court of requests (other wise known as the poor man’s court) which
allowed all men to access justice. Richard was also keen to cultivate his image by promoting
his Christian values (establishing charitable foundations at York minster and Middleham
church) and by swearing his coronation oaths in English to appeal to the common man.
Buckingham’s Rebellion October-November 1483
This was the first rebellion that Richard faced, and it came from an unusual source, as
Buckingham had previously been an ally in the usurpation. To call it “Buckingham’s”
rebellion is however somewhat misleading, as the part he played was in no way as significant
as others. Although he was involved in it, it was not his rebellion and was largely led by
Edward IV’s ex householdmen. Despite the involvement of Henry Tudor who was touted as a
potential replacement for Richard later on in the rebellion, the rebellion itself was primarily
Yorkist, involving figures loyal to Edward IV and his dynasty who were worried as to the
whereabouts of the princes.
Causes
Many of those who had accepted Richard as protector would not accept him as king. The
usurpation had seemingly changed people’s minds on him, and although there is evidence to
suggest that the pre contract story was believed in much of the north, it certainly did not
convince all, particularly in the south. We have clear evidence of dissatisfaction in the south,
with plans hatched to free the princes as early as July.
Key events/figures involved
The rebellion involved 33 JPs and 3 sheriffs who wanted to free the Princes, and restore the
boy Edward V to the throne. These men were of relatively high status and clearly risked a lot,
demonstrating the conviction they had in what they were doing and their anger towards
Richard. Interestingly, many were the ex-household men of Edward, who Richard had tried to
win round, showing the failure of Richard’s policies. When they learned that they then
championed the claim of Henry Tudor. The fact that they were seemingly more desperate to
depose Richard, rather than necessarily find a replacement is testimony to their hatred; those
who accepted him as protector would not do so as King.
Buckingham was handed over by his own men after Richard III put a bounty on his head,
however the rebellion was supported by many of Richard’s opponents such as the
Woodvilles. Some of the figures who supported the rebellion do however show that Richard
did not perhaps have as much support as he hoped wiith a former household member of
Richard’s William Stonor joining the rebellion. More worrying for Richard was the
involvement of his former brother in law Thomas St Leger.
Richard’s response
Richard raised an impressive army demonstrating the extent of his support in the north, and
marched south forcing the rebels to disperse. He was successful in letting the commoners off,
but placed prices on the heads of ringleaders, allowing him to arrest Buckingham.
Buckingham was ultimately executed alongside many other southern gentry. In many ways,
Richard’s response shows the power and support he had, and his swift response says quite
positive things about him. The problem would be his long term responses that would really
turn people against him
Effects of the rebellion
Although Henry Tudor quickly turned around when he realised the rebellion was doomed to
failure, the fact that he was touted as a replacement made him a major rival. From this point
onwards, Richard was terrified of the threat from henry VII. For the next two years the
English defences would be on a war footing, which would greatly damage Richard’s
finances. In addition to this, Richard’s fear of a future invasion from henry led to him
introducing policies that made him more and more unpopular, increasing the chances of an
invasion from Henry!
The aftermath
Perhaps more dangerous than the rebellion would be the methods used by Richard to
maintain stability in the future which would possibly be the key cause of his eventual fall.
He had lots of land to give away now (Buckingham was attainted), however he tended to give
it away to key figures such as Norfolk, Northumberland and Stanley, preventing him from
significantly building up his support base. His attempts to get Henry back from Brittany
failed, and the need to defend from invasion led to him limiting his planned financial reform.
His most significant action was to remove all the land from the southern ex household
officials of Edward IV (as he could not count on their loyalty after Buckingham’s Rebellion),
however the decision to attaint these figures without going through parliament angered
people and made it hard for Richard to look like a man of justice like he tried to portray
himself (possibly increase his unpopularity).
Unable to rely on the support of the nobles who had been loyal to Edward IV, Richard
increasingly relied on those whose loyalty was to him. He planted many men of his ducal
affinity in the south “the planting of northerners”, however this made his power base
dangerously narrow. Southerners within his household were replaced by northerners, who in
turn were given the land forfeited by those who had lost their positions in the south. This
whole policy was incredibly unpopular in the south (there had been a long standing fear of
northerners in the south stemming from 1461 when the Yorkists had been the party of the
south) and began to give court an increasingly northern character.
To give the northerners standing he had to give them relatively large estates/important roles,
making Marmaduke Constable (from Yorkshire) rule Tonbridge in Kent. By 1484, in the
regions south of the Thames, 2/3 of sheriffs were “northern intruders”. Rather than instil the
good government and law and order that Richard had promised, the Crowland Chronicle
states how the people of the south “longed for the return of their old laws.”
The crucial thing here is that planting northerners in the south was supposed to secure
his position, however it only served to make him more unpopular in the south. When
coupled with the fact that Buckingham’s Rebellion had showed the Princes were
seemingly no longer alive (making Richard look like a child killer), public opinion,
especially in the south was turning against him).
There were other key problems with planting northerners in the south, most notably that it
made his power base dangerously narrow, ensuring that northerners did not want him to
widen his power base. It also meant that Richard’s loyal supporters were far away from him
at times when he needed them most. These problems were further compounded by the fact
that Richard spent most of his time in Nottingham, away from the main seat of government in
London.
Richard’s policies
A favourite of examiners is to ask how successful Richard was in achieving his aims as
king. When answering such a question, you need to think about his aims. When looking
at his legal reforms for example you need to consider what he was trying to do. If he
brought in this legal reforms to get support he failed. If however his aim was to increase
the rights of the common man and provide them with access to law and order then he
succeeded.
Richard tried promoting himself as a god fearing and pious monarch, a stark contrast to his
over indulgent brother Edward. He set up charitable foundations at both Middleham and York
Minster, and publicly exhumed the body of Henry VI and re buried it in St George’s Chapel
at Windsor (to try and win round Lancastrians). Although these can be dismissed as publicity
stunts (he did in fact have an illegitimate son) Richard policies are not entirely typical of a
King of this period.
Law and order under Richard
In 1483 Richard had a proclamation read out in Kent after Buckingham’s Rebellion in which
he stressed his determination “to see due administration of justice” throughout the country.
This could have been an exercise in public relations, however it is likely that he did have an
interest in maintaining law and order, even if only to gain public acceptance. In many
respects, Richard remains a man of contradictions- he was loyal to his brother yet deposed his
children; he tried cultivating an image of piety, yet fathered an illegitimate child and accused
his own mother of adultery. After Buckingham’s rebellion he seized land without passing an
act of attainder, however in spite of this there remains a case that he wanted to spread the
benefit of law to his subjects.
One area in which Richard received plaudits was his encouragement of people to bring bills
of complaint to him. He encouraged this on his initial progress, and went on to make John
Harrington clerk of Council of Requests, a significant development which for the first time
gave access to law for those who could not afford it. Richard’s commitment to law and order
seems to be further demonstrated by the introduction of legislation which prevented those
accused of crimes from losing their property before conviction, as well as introducing the
principle of bail. His attempts to end benevolences, which had long been seen as exploitation
on the part of the monarch seemed to suggest he was willing to curb some of his own
priviledges, however he had to make an embarrassing U turn in this respect later on.
According to the Rous Rolls (notoriously pro Yorkist) “his law and judges sat in every
place”, and that by punishing those who broke his laws and oppressed the commons he
received “the love of all his subjects rich and poor”. Although the Roux Rolls can be heavily
criticised, it is likely that Richard wanted to take his kingly duties seriously, particularly
given how much his usurpation had cost him. Part of his interest in pursuing law and order
was undoubtedly to service his own needs as by encouraging petitions from those wronged by
Edward and the Woodvilles (the Woodvilles had dominated the Council of Wales and had
excluded previously prominent nobles) he could try and win around those isolated by his
brother. The problem with this policy was that it meant that he isolated those Yorkists
who had supported Edward IV . His concern however for enclosure in Wales (this was
something which affected the common man as opposed to the landowner) does however
suggest that his interest in law and order was to a large extent aimed at helping others.
The Council of the North
One of Richard’s most far sighted moves (copied by Henry VII) was to establish the Council
of the North, which would work along the lines of the Council of Wales set up by Edward.
On the surface this aimed to improve law and order in the region by ensuring that Richard’s
laws were implemented and obeyed in what had, in the past been a remote region run by
overmighty nobles who had been largely immune to the monarch’s legislation. By installing a
council instead of relying on a powerful magnate such as Northumberland, Richard could
extend his authority without having to worry about increasing the power of a potentially
dangerous noble (this shows his fear of making certain nobles too powerful). The Council of
the North was in part motivated by a desire to centralise (e.g. make sure power rested with
the king rather than a particular noble), however it is more likely that his primary motive was
to reduce the power held by the Earl of Northumberland in the region. The fact that the
President of the Council of the North was Norfolk whose power base was not in the region
was a wise plan, however this further demonstrated Richard’s suspicion when it came to the
nobles. The Council of the North was a good idea, however it possibly angered
Northumberland, who resented his decreased power (look at his actions at Bosworth).
Richard and finance
Richard was accused by the Crowland chronicler of frittering away the money that Edward
had left, however the amount that Edward left was significantly reduced as a result of his war
with Scotland to the extent that he only left £1200 in the treasury on his death.
Richard’s actual financial policies were quite sensible; he revived chamber finance and
benefited from a number of attainders, particularly following Buckingham’s Rebellion. He
gave land to supporters but was reluctant to grant titles (as shown when he rewarded figures
such as Ratcliffe and Catesby). This helped him financially as it meant he didn’t need to give
away quite as much land. He also continued with some of Edward’s more successful financial
policies of his second reign by insisting on annual rent on crown land and chasing up feudal
dues more assertively. In addition to this he attempted to curb corruption wherever possible,
which further increased his income from crown lands.
In spite of this, he suffered major cash shortages, largely because of his decision to keep the
defences on a war footing, which cost huge amounts of money. This reveals one of
Richard’s major problems; he knew he was unpopular, yet his fear of being usurped
lead to him introducing measures that only served to make him more unpopular!
Richard’s financial desperation is shown by his decision to devalue the coinage, leading to
increased inflation. Customs revenue also dropped under Richard, with the net result that he
was only able to pay off his debts, rather than build a hansom profit. The fact that he had to
borrow money from London merchants and foreign financers was nothing new, however it
should not really have had to be something a king was forced into doing.
He did however lose a great deal of credibility when forced in 1485 to request loans from his
subjects. Although these were not really benevolences (which he had outlawed) they seemed
incredibly similar, making Richard look hypocritical. This again shows how Richard’s
attempts to secure his position (benevolences were designed to fund his defences) turned
people against him. Interestingly, when Richard died he was solvent, despite having to
spend large sums of money defending himself from invasion; there is every likelihood that
had he reigned for longer he could have stabilised the finances even further. In spite of this,
rather than win him supporters (which he hoped would happen with the abolition of
benevolences) his general shortage of cash and subsequent introduction of increased taxation
brought tax riots in the south and general unpopularity.
Richards Foreign Policy
England was diplomatically isolated in 1483 as demonstrated by the fact that no European
powers were willing to involve themselves on the side of the Princes. Richard’s subsequent
usurpation gave other monarchs further ammunition against him and compounded his
isolation. Richard’s initial foreign policy was poor, as rather than seeking peace with
Scotland he backed Albany again with an invasion that went wrong at a time when he could
not afford it. This, coupled with expected invasion from Henry put huge demands on his
purse strings.
In 1484 a three year truce was agreed with the Scots; however they still retained the “Auld
Alliance” with France. He did however follow a more sensible policy with regard to Brittany,
adopting a carrot and stick approach in an attempt to persuade the Duke of Brittany to give
Henry up. Richard encouraged his navy to prey on Breton ships in an attempt to show their
power, however he also offered to make Duke Francis the Earl of Richmond (according to
Vergil) as well as offering him an anti French alliance. At one point, Duke Francis fell ill
(preventing him from protecting Henry) however just at the point at which he was to be
handed over he was tipped off and fled to France. Although Richard’s policy in this regard
could not really be faulted, he had now forced him into the hands of France, a much more
dangerous and powerful adversary! Having offered to support Brittany against the French the
French now had all the excuse they needed to use Henry against Richard!
Richard’s policy towards the nobles
Unlike his brother, Richard remained quite fearful of the nobility, as demonstrated by his
reluctance to grant titles. Although he gave significant patronage to Stanley, Northumberland
and Norfolk, in the case of the first two, this was motivated by a necessity to keep their
support, rather than out of a genuine desire to reward them. Many of Richard’s policies
reflect his fear of the nobility (as a usurper it is likely he feared potential opposition), most
notably the introduction of the Council of the North. It would however appear that this move
angered Northumberland, and may have been an influence behind his decision not to help
Richard at Bosworth.
In addition to this, his legal reforms sought to further reduce the power of the nobles by
giving the commoners access to the law through the Court of Requests. This possibly angered
nobles who had been able to exploit the system of law and order under Edward. He did
however lack some of his brother’s pragmatism, as demonstrated to side with John
Harrington over Stanley when the two were locked in a land dispute. Although it would be
overly simplistic to suggest that this was the reason Stanley turned against him at Bosworth,
Edward IV had realised the Stanley’s worth, and so had thus sided with the more powerful
Stanley family.
Although Richard was willing to grant patronage, he was reluctant to give ennoblement. Even
when he gave land to what would equate to lower peerages (e.g to Ratcliffe and Catesby) he
did not give titles, with most land given to Stanley, Norfolk and Northumberland. Rather than
giving it to such a small a group Richard would have benefitted from giving it to a wider
group and significantly building up the power of nobles he knew he could trust (like Edward
IV’s promotion of figures such as Herbert and Hastings). This was demonstrated by the fact
that at Bosworth only 10 peers out of around 40 supported him. Of these, all were either
Viscounts or Barons (lower ranks of nobility and therefore not very powerful) with the
exception of Norfolk, Nottingham and Berkeley.
Richard III and Parliament
Although Richard only held one session of parliament (it opened on 23rd January 1484,
having been postponed from 6th November 1483 as a result of Buckingham's rebellion), the
high percentage of acts passed by this parliament that tried to improve conditions for ordinary
people have led to great praise from certain corners. On the other hand, it is also possible to
argue that Richard sought to use Parliament in order to allow him to reward and secure the
loyalty of supporters, rather than being motivated by improving conditions for the ordinary
people of the realm.
The main matters before the assembly in 1484 were the ratification of the new king's title, which
was accomplished by the passage of the Titulus regius, and the attainder of the rebels involved
in Buckingham’s Rebellion. Richard has however been criticised for failing to do this in the
proper manner, as rather than go through parliament straight away, he attainted them without the
consent of Parliament in 1483, and only sought their approval in 1484.Richard also needed
money as he had been ruling for half a year and put down Buckingham’s Rebellion without
being granted any extra ordinary revenue. This financial situation was acknowledged by the
unprecedented grant to Richard of the customs for his life in his first parliament (e.g. all the
projected sums he was going to get from customs dues were given to him in his first year). In
addition to this there were twenty-one private acts. These were primarily acts which benefited
particular individuals such as Lord Lovell, or settled the descent of particular lands such as those
of the duchy of Exeter. Richard can however be criticised for allowing Parliament to be used to
benefit his loyal supporters such as Lovel, as it may suggest he was attempting to buy support.
Other decisions made by the Parliament
-Legislation (laws) were introduced to make fraud more difficult. In the past, landowners had
previously given their land to trustees in order to avoid paying their full dues, however Richard
made this process more difficult.
- Legal changes were brought in by parliament, most notably the introduction of bail. In addition
to this, those accused of a crime were to have their possessions protected until they were actually
found guilty of the crime of which they were accused. Richard also brought in legislation stating
that jurors should only be appointed if they earned over 20 shillings a year. This was supposedly
an attempt to make it more difficult to bribe juries.
-An act was also brought in to correct dishonest officials at “piepowder courts” (these regulated
local markets and fairs), suggesting that Richard was keen to protect some of his poorest
subjects.
- Stricter laws were brought in against “aliens” (non English people e.g. foreign merchants).
Alien merchants were ordered to spend the profits of their sales on English goods, and it was
made difficult for them to take non-English apprentices. These acts, like the end to benevolences
were extremely popular and did win Richard support in London. It was perhaps partly a reward
for London's assistance during Richard's accession.
Much of this is not new to you, and it has been covered when we looked at Richard’s
legislation. When looking at his use of Parliament, the crucial thing to remember is that
although he only called it once, he made great use of it. All of these laws went through
parliament, and although he can be criticised for failing to go through parliament when
passing Acts of Attainder, aside from this he did seem relatively keen to use parliament
to improve the lives of his subjects. This contrasts with other monarchs who would only
call parliament when they needed money.
Why was Henry VII Triumphant at Bosworth?
1 Richard’s unpopularity
When considering his unpopularity, it is worth giving attention to:

His unpopularity amongst the nobles

His unpopularity abroad (particularly France)

His general unpopularity in England (especially in the south- he was still relatively
popular in the north)
This general unpopularity made the whole usurpation by Henry possible. The unpopularity of
Richard’s seizure of the throne was shown by Buckingham’s Rebellion, and Richards’s
response to this (planting northerners and passing acts of attainder) made him even more
unpopular at a time when he needed to cultivate popularity! The disappearance of the princes
was also key as this seemingly showed Richard to be a merciless, child killing usurper. Even
though Buckingham’s Rebellion had failed, Richard was right to feel insecure as he couldn’t
rely on support of nobles who had been loyal to Ed IV given how Richard had split the
Yorkists. Having isolated himself from traditional Yorkist supporters, he increasingly relied
on those whose loyalty was to him not the house of York by “planting” many men of his
ducal affinity in the south. It is noticeable that when Henry Tudor landed, he got a great
deal of support from the south, with Richard struggling to mobilise many southern
supporters.
The whole policy of planting northerners in the south meant his power base was dangerously
narrow. In addition to increasing resentment to Richard in the south, his northern supporters
remained opposed to him widening his power base as they may lose out. It was also
rumoured he wanted to marry Elizabeth of York (Elizabeth Woodville’s and Edward IV’s
daughter) following the death of his wife Margaret, however his northern supporters would
not allow it. The death of his son Edward further called his dynasty into question, and with no
wife and no child he now seemed particularly vulnerable. .
2 Henry fleeing abroad
The obscure Henry Tudor had become the new focus for opposition during Buckingham’s
Rebellion, and clearly identified him as a rival claimant. Although Henry had quickly turned
back and fled, his involvement had been extremely positive in a public relations sense.
Richard’s policy was sensible, and he pursued a Carrot and stick policy aimed at getting him
back from Brittany. Duke Francis was promised the Earldom of Richmond (and possibly an
anti French alliance) if he gave surrendered Henry, however at the same time the English
Merchant fleet preyed on Breton ships to demonstrate England and Richard’s power. Richard
can not be criticised for his policies here, however due to his rigorous policies (the Bretons
were probably just about to give him up as Duke Francis had been taken ill, allowing others
to act behind his back) he then fled to France. This would in fact prove far more dangerous,
with France being a much more powerful nation. France did not like Richard’s attempts to
ally with Brittany, and due to France’s power and wealth, they could provide Henry with
more money and men than the Bretons could.
Henry himself carried out actions that increased his profile, swearing in 1483 at Vannes
Cathedral that if he became King he would marry Elizabeth of York in an attempt to unite he
two houses.
3 Henry’s delays/good fortune
Henry’s first invasion attempt had to be abandoned after storms damaged a number of his
ships. The longer Henry was able to delay for, the more money Richard had to waste
garrisoning men in the south east.
When Henry did invade, he opted to land in Wales, where he was able to proceed unopposed.
Large parts of this were however due to good fortune, with James Tyrell (the main Yorkist
Lord) in South West Wales dealing with disturbances elsewhere. Henry on the other hand
was quickly able to secure the support of the local noble Rhys Ap-Thomas.
4 Poor Patronage
Although Richard was willing to grant patronage, he was reluctant to give ennoblement. Even
when he gave land to what would equate to lower peerages (e.g to Ratcliffe and Catesby) he
did not give titles as he was possibly fearful of upstarts. Building up the power of his own
supporters could have been a key way of protecting himself and his rule.
He did however have a lot of land to give away after Buckingham’s rebellion, but he tended
to give it away to the three key nobles, Norfolk, Northumberland and Stanley. Rather than
giving it to such a small a group Richard would have benefitted from giving it to a wider
group. This was demonstrated by the fact that at Bosworth only 10 peers out of around 40
supported him. Of these, all were either Viscounts or Barons with the exception of Norfolk,
Nottingham and Berkely.
It is difficult to see the desertion of Stanley at Bosworth as being a direct result of Richard’s
policy of patronage, as he had looked to reward Stanley (he was made Constable of England).
The fact that Richard had kept his son hostage in order to ensure that he remained loyal on
the battlefield shows that he clearly did not trust him, and that he felt family ties would
overcome his ties to the King.
5 Disloyalty/events on the battlefield
Of the three key nobles who commanded sections of Richard’s army at Bosworth, only one,
John Howard actually fought for Richard. Northumberland held back (possibly because the
way the fighting developed prevented him from being able to involve his troops in events, or
possibly because he had not liked Richard’s dominance in the north) and Stanley switched his
support to his stepson Henry. The fact that Richard had Stanley’s son hostage (Richard’s own
men refused to execute him) suggests he was deeply suspicious as to his loyalty, however he
can be criticised for continuing to trust him with troops. Richard clearly knew he could not
trust him).
Richard’s decisions on the battlefield
At Bosworth, Richard had a greater force than Henry, however there were rumours of treason
afoot which possibly influenced Richard’s course of action. Unsure as to whether he would
get support from Northumberland and Stanley, and fearful of treachery, Richard sought a
swift end and charged at Henry accompanied by just his household and bodyguard. At this
point, Stanley committed his forces and a mixture of these, and Henry’s Swiss pike men cut
Richard down. In this sense, the battle was lost by Richard rather than won by Henry.
Although it is easy to look at the treachery, treason and lack of commitment, it was Richard’s
gamble that must be blamed. He was however an experienced campaigner given the battles
he had fought for Edward in Scotland in the late 1470’s, and his gamble was probably due to
uncertainties as to who was loyal to him. As a result, it is extremely important that we do not
see the events on the battlefield as being detached from his wider policies. It was Richard’s
failure to cultivate any real popularity and his lack of trust which forced him into using this
particular tactic.