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Biology Unit 7-9
Biology Units 7 -9
DNA to Proteins
Cell Cycle- Mitosis, Meiosis and Reproduction
Mendel and Genetics
Fredrick Griffith- 1928
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One form is coated by carbohydrates and is smooth (S form) while the other form is rough.
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He injected the mice and the smooth ones died, when the S bacteria was killed with heat first,
the mice lived.
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Combo- R and heat treated S= mice died. Found S bacteria in the blood. Some of the S
bacteria must have transferred into the R. The R became harmful.
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Conclusion: __________________________________________________________________
Why did this happen?
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Biology Unit 7-9
Oswald Avery- 1944
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Figured out what the transforming principle was by observing it in a Petri dish.
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Conducted three tests:
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1. ____________________- chemical tests showed that there weren’t any proteins,
but DNA was present.
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2. ____________________- Elements in the extract (sample) closely matched those
found in DNA.
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3. ____________________________- tested the reaction to certain enzymes. Added to
the extract enzymes that breakdown proteins, the extract still transformed the R
bacteria to the S form. Transformation did not occur when they added an enzyme to
destroy the DNA.
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Conclusion- ______________________________________________________________
Hershey and Chase- 1952
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Studied bacteriophages->
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They used radioactive sulfur (found in proteins ) and radioactive phosphorus (found in DNA)
Experiment 1
Infected bacteria with bacteriophages
grown in radioactive sulfur; separated
bacteria from the phages, found no
activity in the bacteria.
Experiment 2
Infected bacteria with bacteriophage
grown in radioactive phosphorus;
separated bacteria from
bacteriophages; found significant
radioactivity inside the bacteria, which
showed that DNA from the
bacteriophage had entered the bacteria
FINAL RESULT- ________________________________________________________________________
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Biology Unit 7-9
Watson and Crick determined the three-dimensional structure of
DNA by building models.
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The Structure of DNA- Deoxyribonucleic Acid
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o ________________________________________________________
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o ________________________________________________________
o ________________________________________________________
o ________________________________________________________
o ________________________________________________________
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Why would the middle / nitrogenous bases be held together by hydrogen bonds and the “backbone”
or sides be made up of covalent bonds?
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Biology Unit 7-9
Label the
nitrogenous base
pairs, hydrogen
bonds, sugars,
phosphates, and
covalent bonds.
Chargaff’s Rule
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o ________________________________________________________
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o ________________________________________________________
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 _____________________________________________________________
 Example- ACACAC, what is the complementary strand?________________
What is the complementary strand????
• 1. TGCATTGC =____________________________________
• 2. ATATAGCTAG=_________________________________
• 3. ATA=________________________
• 4. CAT=_________________________
• 5. TATGC=______________________________
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Biology Unit 7-9
Cell Cycle
Cells divide at different rates.
• _____________________________________________________________
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• Why? ________________________________________________________
• Go=__________________________________________________________
– Ex- neurons and muscle cells
– Ex- lymphocytes= part of your immune system -> B cells and T cells.
They don’t divide until they recognize an invader and then they
rapidly divide to fight that antigen.
Cell Size:
• Cells are limited in size by their surface area to volume ratio
– Cells can get so large that they can no longer obtain enough oxygen
and nutrients at which point they divide.
• Surface area must allow for adequate exchange of materials.
• Cell growth is coordinated with division.
• Cells that must be large have unique shapes.
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Biology Unit 7-9
Cell Cycle___________________________________________________________
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5 Main Stages:
1._______________________
2._______________________
3._______________________
4._______________________
5._______________________
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Biology Unit 7-9
First Stop- Interphase
Gap 1 or G1
Synthesis or S phase
Gap 2 or G2
A Deeper Look at Synthesis
DNA Replication:
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• Your DNA is divided into 46 chromosomes that are replicated during the S
phase of the cell cycle. Your DNA is copied once in each round of the cell
cycle = complete set of DNA for each cell.
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Biology Unit 7-9
• ______________________________________________________________
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• Nucleotides are free floating in the nucleus and can pair up with the
nucleotides from the existing DNA strands.
• ______________________________________________________________
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Transcription
Now that we have replicated or duplicated our DNA we now need to transcribe it.
The ultimate goal is to make proteins so now we need to break the DNA down into
RNA- Ribonucleic Acid.
• Defined as :
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• RNA= ________________________________________________
• The nitrogenous bases change a bit.
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• A-U and C-G are paired up together.
• Example of a DNA Strand: TACGGAC
• Example of an RNA Strand: AUGCCUG
Change the DNA Strand into an RNA Strand:
1. ATTGCGCAT= ______________________________________
2. TTGCAGTCATG=____________________________________
3. GCGCGCTTATAGC=_________________________________
Facts about RNA:
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Biology Unit 7-9
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 Created three types of RNA
o Messenger RNA (mRNA)
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o Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
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o Transfer RNA (tRNA)
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Translation
 Now let’s take the RNA and turn it into a protein / amino acid.
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 We have 20 amino acids. Now we will string together nucleotides to make
amino acids that the body can use.
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 AUG = start codon-> start of translation
 UAA, UAG, and UGA= stop codons-> signal the end of amino acid chain.
mRNA Recap:
 _____________________________________________________________
 _____________________________________________________________
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Biology Unit 7-9
 _____________________________________________________________
Ribosomes:
 _____________________________________________________________
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 _____________________________________________________________
tRNA
 Adaptor – just like a plug in an outlet.
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 Example- Codon= GGG, the anticodon would be ______________
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Biology Unit 7-9
END RESULT: _________________________________________
Next Stop- MITOSIS
Mitosis is defined as:
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Cytokinesis:_________________________________________________
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• ______________________________________________________
• In this process the nuclear membrane dissolves and the
duplicated DNA condenses around proteins and separates,
resulting in two nuclei formed.
Terminology First:
• Chromosomes- _________________________________________
• Histones______________________________________________________
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Biology Unit 7-9
• Chromatin______________________________________________________
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• Chromatid- ____________________________________________
• Centromere- ___________________________________________
• Telomere______________________________________________________
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Chromosomes:
• Long continuous thread of DNA with lots of genes that regulate
your entire body
• Body= ________________________________________________
• In just one cell it is about 3ft long
• DNA wraps around proteins called ________________________
• DNA and histones form chromatin (looks like spaghettiinterphase)
• ______________________________________________________
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Biology Unit 7-9
The Process of Mitosis
• The nucleus and chromosomes go through dramatic changes to
create two identical daughter cells.
• 4 Stages______________________________________________________
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Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
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Biology Unit 7-9
Cytokinesis:
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– In animal cells, the membrane pinches closed.
– In plant cells, a cell plate forms.
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Biology Unit 7-9
Regulation of the Cell Cycle
External
Internal
Apoptosis:
– _______________________________________________________
– ________________________________________________________
– ________________________________________________________
Cell division is uncontrolled in Cancer
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 Benign tumors remain clustered and can be removed.
 Malignant tumors metastasize, or break away, and can form more
tumors.
Reproduction
Sexual Reproduction:
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Gametes:______________________________________________
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Biology Unit 7-9
Asexual Reproduction:
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Examples:
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Binary Fission:
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Budding:
Defined as:
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Examples: __________________________________________________
Fragmentation:
Defined as:
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Examples: __________________________________________________
Vegetative Reproduction
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Biology Unit 7-9
Defined as:
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Examples: __________________________________________________
Advantages of Asexual
Reproduction
Disadvantages of Reproduction
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Biology Unit 7-9
Meiosis and Genetics
Your body has two types of cells:
Somatic Cells =Body Cells
Germ Cells= Gametes= Sex
Cells
a. Which cell type makes up your brain? _____________________
b. Which cell type makes up your sperm or eggs? _______________________
Your Cells Have Autosomes and Sex Chromosomes
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Biology Unit 7-9
Autosomes:
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Sex Chromosomes:
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Karyotype: _________________________________________________________
a.
b.
c.
d.
What is pair 23 called?
Is it a male or female?
How many total chromosomes are there total?
Which sex chromosome is always larger?
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Sexual Reproduction:
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Fertilization:
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Diploid
Haploid
The Process of Meiosis
• _____________________________________________________________
• Two rounds: Meiosis 1 and Meiosis 2
– Meiosis 1- _______________________________________________
– Meiosis 2- _______________________________________________
• _____________________________________________________________
• _____________________________________________________________
Homologous Chromosomes and Sister ChromatidsHow do I tell them apart?
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Biology Unit 7-9
Homologous Chromosomes Two separate chromosomes, one from your mom and one from your
dad.
 They are the same length and carry the same genes, but they are not
copies of each other.
Sister Chromatids______________________________________________________________________________
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Steps of Meiosis
Meiosis 1: Goal= divide homologous chromosomes.
 Prophase 1o ________________________________________________________
o ________________________________________________________
o ________________________________________________________
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o
o
o
o
o
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Crossing over is important because:
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Metaphase 1:
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 23 chromosomes line up along each side of the equator- some from mom
and some from dad.
 Each side of the equator has chromosomes from both parents.
 Results in 8,388,608 possible chromosome combinations.
Anaphase 1:
 _____________________________________________________________
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 _____________________________________________________________
Telophase 1:
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Biology Unit 7-9
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End result= 23 unique duplicated chromosomes from both parents
Meiosis 2- divides sister chromatids
* Note we are starting with two cells not one.
Prophase II Nuclear membrane breaks down
 Centrosomes and centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell
 _________________________________________________
Metaphase II _____________________________________________________________
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Anaphase II _____________________________________________________________
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Telophase II
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Nuclear Membranes form around chromosomes
Spindle fibers fall apart
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Mitosis
Meiosis
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Biology Unit 7-9
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Biology Unit 7-9