Innovation and change management
Change management; ‘The leadership and direction of the process of organizational transformation
– especially with regard to human aspects and overcoming resistance to change.’ ‘The process of
achieving the smooth implementation of change by planning and introducing it systematically, taking
into account the like hood of being resisted.’
Triggers of organizational change; Environment, rapid technological shifts, diversification into new
business lines, people (new types of people entering the organization).
Classifying organizational change;
Incremental change
Radical change
•Continuous
•Affect organizational part
•Through normal structure and
management processes
•Technology improvements
•Product improvements
•Paradigm breaking
•Transform entire organization
•Create new structure and
management
•Breaktrough technology
•New products and new markets
Reasons for resistance to change;
- Parochial self-interest
- Misunderstanding
- Low tolerance to change
- Difference assessments of the situation
Six change approaches to deal with change resistance;
1. Education and communication
2. Participation and involvement
3. Facilitation and support
4. Negotiation and agreement
5. Manipulation and co-option
6. Explicit and implicit coercion
Making sense of change management
Chapter 1 Individual change:
Leaders of change need to balance their efforts across all three dimensions of an organizational
change;
Outcomes; deliver
business outcomes
Interests;
Mobilize
influence,
authority and
power
Personal
leadership
Emotions;
Enable people
and culture to
adapt
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Change occurs on three levels;
- Individual
- Team
- Organizational
The Gestalt psychologists suggests that people have a
worldview that entails some things being in the
foreground and others being in the background of their
consciousness. Everyone has conscious and
unconscious competences and incompetence’s. (The
learning dip)
Process of doing and thinking (Kolb’s learning cycle);
1. Concrete experience (Activist)
2. Reflective observation (Reflector)
3. Theoretical concepts (Theorist)
4. Practical experimentation (Pragmatist)
Activist; doing
something new, trying
out, talking things
through.
Pragmatist; practical,
produce plans,
experiment, execute
projects
Reflector; Observe
new things, think
about change,
research planning
Theorist; theory
behind change, fitting
thing in bigger
picture, spot
inconsistencies
Four approaches to change;
- Behavioral; Changing behavior
- Cognitive; Achieving results
- Psychodynamic; The inner world of change
- Humanistic psychology; Maximizing potential
Behavioral approach to change;
Focuses on how one individual can change another individual’s behavior using reward and
punishment, to achieve intended results.
1. Identification; specify desired behavior
2. Measurement; measure current incidence of desired behavior
3. Functional analysis; identification of component part of each behavior
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4. Strategy intervention; provide consequences that reinforce desired behavior
5. Evaluation; determine effectiveness
Pavlov effect; Wanneer een prikkel A (het signaal) herhaaldelijk voorafgaat aan prikkel B (het voeren)
dat een bepaald gedrag (kwijlen) oplevert, dan zal op den duur prikkel A reeds dat gedrag opleveren,
ook zonder prikkel B.
Reward strategies;
- Financial reinforcement; bonus payments, prizes and other tangible rewards.
- Non financial reinforcement; feedback, social reinforcement.
Theory X and Theory Y; looks at underlying management assumptions about an organization’s
workforce.
- Theory X was built on the assumption that workers are not inherently motivated to work, seeing it
as a necessary evil and therefore needing close supervision.
- Theory Y stated that human beings generally have a need and a desire to work and, given the right
environment, are more than willing to contribute to the organization’s success.
Herzberg’s motivation factors;
- Hygiene factors (avoid pain and deprivation); pay, status, security, relationships.
- Motivators (learn and develop); achievement, recognition, learning.
Cognitive approach to change;
Theory focused on the premise that our emotions and our problems are a result of the way we think.
By changing thought processes, individuals can change the way they respond in situations.
Focus on the results that an individual wants to achieve  Setting goals!
Self concept and values Beliefs Attitudes Feelings  Behavior  Results
ADKAR change model;
Improving performance by changing the beliefs of people;
- Positive listings
- Affirmations
- Visualizations
- Reframing
- Pattern breaking
- Detachment
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- Anchoring and resource states
- Rational analysis
Psychodynamic approach to change;
When an individual faces change in the external world, it will experience a variety of internal
psychological states (under the iceberg).
Kubler-Ross model;
Denial  Anger Bargaining  Depression  Acceptance
Adams et al model;
Shock and/or surprise  Denial  Anger  Bargaining  Depression  Acceptance 
Experimentation  Discovery
Virginia Satir model;
System with an established status quo, something new enters this system (foreign element), this
leads to chaos. After this chaos the foreign element will be integrated into the existing system and a
new status quo appears.
Foreign
element
Old status
quo
Chaos
Integration
and practice
New status
quo
Humanistic psychology approach to change;
The humanistic psychology approach is about believing in development and growth, and maximizing
potential. The emphasis is on healthy development, healthy authentic relationships and healthy
organizations.
Maslow’s theory of motivation, hierarchy of needs;
Self
actualization
needs
Self esteem needs
Love and belong needs
Safety needs
Psychological needs
Rogers ‘client centered approach’;
1. Genuineness and congruence; change agent has to be real and genuine.
2. Unconditional positive regard; genuine willingness to allow the client’s process to continue.
3. Empathetic understanding.
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Gestalt approach has the primary aim of showing clients that they interrupt themselves in achieving
what they want.
Myers Briggs type indicator indentifies eight different personality preferences that we all use at
different times, but each individual will have a preference for one particular combination over the
others.
- Energy; Extravert  Introvert
- Receiving data and information; Sensing  Intuition
- Decision making; Thinking  Feeling
- Lifestyle; Judging  Perceiving
Influences for an individual’s respond to change; five factors have an influence on an individual’s
respond to change.
Nature of the
change
Type of
individual
Response
to change
Consequences
of the change
Organizational
history
Individual
history
Schein’s model for transformative change;
Step 1: Unfreezing (creating motivation to change)
Step 2: Learning new concepts and new meanings from old concepts
Step 3: Refreezing (Internalizing new concepts and meanings)
How managers and change agents can help others to change;
Behavioral
Performance management
Reward policies
Skills training
Feedback
Psychodynamic
Understanding change dynamics
Counseling people
Addressing emotions
Treat employees and managers as adults
Cognitive
Management by objectives
Business planning and performance framework
Results based coaching
Visioning
Humanistic
Living the values
Developing a learning organization
Addressing hierarchy of needs
Addressing emotions
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Chapter 2 Team change:
Group; any number of people who interact with each other, are psychologically aware of each other,
and who perceive themselves to be a group.
Team; a distinguishable set of two or more individuals who interact interdependently and adaptively
to achieve specified, shared, and valued objectives.
Types of teams;
Work team; normal team, handles business as usual, one manager or supervisor.
Self-managed team; normal team, handles business as usual, no supervisor.
Parallel; variable longevity and used for purposes that tend to be other than the normal business.
Project; Formed for the purpose of completing a project.
Matrix; Project manager and team members drawn from functional areas of the organization.
Virtual; Geographically dispersed co workers that work together through information technology.
Management; Responsible for the overall performance of the business unit.
Change; Team formed when a change of significant proportion is necessary.
How to improve team effectiveness;
1. Mission, planning and goal setting.
2. Team roles.
3.Team operating processes.
4. Team interpersonal relationships.
5. Inter team relations.
Tuckmans’s model for team change;
- Forming
- Storming
- Norming
- Performing
- (Adjourning)
Four possible pitfalls of team work(Bion);
- Dependency; team members should not be dependent of the leader.
- Fight or flight; team members should not worry about rumors about organizational change.
- Pairing; team members should not think that two persons of the team will handle everything.
- Oneness; team members should focus on the task and not solely on team cohesion.
Team roles; Belbin concluded that if teams were formed with individuals’ preferences and working
styles in mind, they would have a better chance of team cohesion and work related goal
achievement.
Plant, resource investigator, co-ordinator, shaper, monitor evaluator, team worker, implementer,
completer finisher, specialist.
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Chapter 3 Organizational change:
Morgan’s organizational metaphors are used to explore the assumptions that exists about how
organizational change works.
- Organizations as machines; organizations as rational enterprises designed and structured to
achieve predetermined ends.
- Organizations as political systems; recognizes the important role that power play, competing
interests and conflict have in organizational life.
- Organizations as organisms; sees the organization as a living and adaptive system. This metaphor
suggests that different environments favor different species of organizations based on different
methods of organizing, congruence with the environment is the key to success.
- Organizations as flux and transformation; organizations are part of the ebb and flow of the whole
environment, with the capacity to self organize, change and self renew in line with a desire to have a
certain identity.
Models and approaches to organizational change
Lewin’s three step model (machine, organism); force field analysis, examines the driving and
resisting forces behind organizational change.
- Unfreeze; Examine status quo, increase driving forces and decrease resisting forces.
- Move; Take action, make changes and involve people.
- Refreeze; Make change permanent, establish new way of things and reward desired outcomes.
Bullock and Batten, planned change (machine);
- Exploration
- Planning
- Action
- Integration
Kotter, eight steps (machine, political, organism);
1. Establish a sense of urgency
2. Form a powerful guiding coalition
3. Create a vision
4. Communicate the vision
5. Empower others to act to the vision
6. Plan for and create short term wins
7. Consolidate improvements and produce still more change
8. Institutionalize new approaches
Beckhard and Harris, change formula (organism);
Change= (A*B*D)> X
A = level of dissatisfaction with the status quo
B = Desirability of the proposed change or end state
D = Practicality of the change
X = Cost of changing
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Nadler and Tushman, congruence model (political, organism);
Work; business as usual
People; skills and characteristics of
employees
Formal organization; structures,
systems and policies in place.
Informal organization; unplanned and
unwritten activities such as power,
influence, values and norms.
William Bridges, managing the transition (machine, organism, flux and transformation);
Transition is about letting go of the past and taking up new behaviors or ways of thinking. Planned
change is about physically moving office or installing new equipment. Change is situational and can
be planned, whereas transition is psychological and less easy to manage.
- Ending
- Neutral zone
- New beginning (purpose, picture, plan, part to play)
Carnall, change management model (political, organism);
Effective management of change depends on the level of management skills in the following areas:
Senge et al, systemic model (political, organism, flux and transformation);
- Start small
- Grow steadily
- Don’t plan the whole thing
- Expect challenges
Stacey and Shaw, complex responsive processes (political, flux and transformation);
Change or a new order of things will emerge naturally from clean communication, conflict and
tension. As a manager you are not outside of the system, controlling it, or planning to alter it, you are
part of the whole environment.
Chapter 4 Leading change:
Successful change leadership is achieved by combining aspects of all four metaphors. A wide range
of styles and skills is required for leaders.
Goal setting, monitoring and controlling, coaching and supporting, building vision, communicating
vision, building coalitions, networking, negotiating, facilitating, dealing with conflict.
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Leaders are different from managers: ‘They don’t make plans, they don’t solve problems, they don’t
even organize people. What leaders do is prepare organizations for change and help them cope and
struggle through it.’
- Setting direction versus planning and budgeting
- Aligning people versus organizing and staffing
- Motivating people versus controlling and problem solving
Transformational leadership involves the leader raising the followers’ sense of purpose and levels of
motivation. The aim of the leader and followers combine into one purpose and the leader raises the
followers’ confidence and expectations of themselves.
Transactional leadership is simply an exchange in which the leaders hand over rewards when
followers meet expectations.
Leadership and the organizational metaphors;
Machine; leader sits at the top of the organization, setting goals and driving them through the
completion.
Political; leaders are the figurehead of a powerful coalition which attracts followers by
communicating a compelling and attractive vision, and through negotiating and bargaining.
Organism; leaders’ primary role is that of coach and counselor.
Flux and transformation; leader is a facilitator of emergent change.
Senge, dispersed leadership;
Successful leadership of change does not have to come from the top of the organization, it comes
from within the organization.
- Local line leaders; Front line managers who design the products and services and make the core
processes work.
- Executive leaders; Management board members. Designing environment, teaching and mentoring,
role models.
- Network leaders; Interfaces between project groups, functions and teams, network leaders work at
these interfaces.
O’Neill, four key roles for successful change;
- Sponsor; Authority to make change happen.
- Implementer; Implements the change.
- Change agent; Facilitates the change. Helps sponsor and implementers stay aligned.
- Advocate; Has an idea, needs a sponsor to make it happen.
Goleman’s, six leadership styles;
- Coercive; Telling people what to do when.
- Authoritative; Persuading and attracting people with an engaging vision.
- Affiliative; Building relationships with people through the use of positive feedback.
- Democratic; Asking the team what they think and listening to this.
- Pace setting; Raising the bar and asking for a bit more. Increasing the pace.
- Coaching; Encouraging and supporting people to try new things. Developing their skills.
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Goleman’s, emotional competencies for leaders;
- Self awareness; Knowing one’s internal states.
- Self management; Managing one’s internal states.
- Social awareness; Awareness of others’ feelings, needs and concerns.
- Social skills; Adeptness at inducing desirable responses.
Cameron and Green, five leadership qualities to support change;
- Edgy catalyser; Focuses on creating discomfort to catalyze change.
- Visionary motivator; Focuses on engagement and buy in to energize people.
- Measured connector; Focuses on sense of purpose and connectivity across the organization to help
change to emerge.
- Tenacious implementer; Focuses on projects, plans, deadlines and progress to achieve results.
- Thoughtful architect; Focuses on frameworks, designs and complex fit between strategies and
concepts to ensure that ideas provide a sound basis for change.
Rosabeth Moss Kanter, Learning how to persevere;
Keep going in the change process, even when it gets tough.
Bridges, leading people through transition;
What often stops people from making new beginnings in a change process is that they have not yet
let go of the past.
- Ending; Study change, allow people to grieve, give accurate information, compensate for loss.
- Neutral zone; Uncomfortable time, short range goals, keep feedback flowing, encourage
experimentation and risk taking.
- New beginning; communicate the purpose, create a picture of the change, help people discover
what part they will play in the new system.
Bennis, the role of self knowledge;
Emphasis on the need to know yourself in order to become a good leader.
- Be your own teacher.
- Accept responsibility and blame no one.
- You can learn anything you want to learn.
- True understanding comes from reflection on your experience.
Covey, the need for principle centered leadership;
Covey’s seven habits connect the leaders’ outer habits with the inner capability.
1. Be proactive
2. Begin with the end in mind
3. Put first things first
4. Think win-win
5. Seek first to understand, than to be understood
6. Synergize
7. Sharpen the saw
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Chapter 5 The change agent:
‘The change agent is the facilitator of change. He help the Sponsor and the Implementers stay
aligned with each other. ‘ ‘The change agent acts as a data gatherer, educator, advisor, meeting
facilitator and coach. Most often he has no direct line authority over the implementers and is
therefore in a naturally occurring triangle among sponsor-implementer-agent.’
The classical consulting process comprises various stages;
Entry Contracting Diagnosis Implementation  Evaluation
Block, three types of roles that the change agent can play in the consulting process;
- The expert; Brought in because of knowledge.
- The extra pair of hands; Brought in because there was not enough capacity.
- The collaborative role; Brought in because of expertise and experience.
Facilitating individual change;
- Undo some current ways of seeing and behaving and learn new ways.
- Help people through the learning cycle.
- Conversations and high quality dialogue help the facilitation of change.
Facilitating team change;
- Understand current state and status of the team involved in change and the future state and status
desired.
- Understand individual MBTI types and Belbin roles.
Facilitating organizational change;
- The change kaleidoscope can help reduce the feelings of chaos which might abound.
Design choices; Path, start point, style, target, levers, roles.
Contextual choices; Time, scope, preservation, diversity, capability, capacity, readiness, power.
Caluwé and Vermaak, approaches to change linked to organizational metaphors;
- Change through design (blue); planned approach to change, linked to machine.
- Change through addressing interests (yellow); aligning stakeholders, linked to political system.
- Change through emergence (white); linked to flux and transformation.
- Change through learning (green); linked to organism.
- Change through people (red); linked to machine and organism.
Chapter 8 Cultural change;
Culture is the pattern of basic assumptions that a given group has invented, discovered or developed
in learning to cope with its problems of external adaption and internal integration, and that have
worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, be taught to new members as the correct
way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems.
Schein, suggests that there are six ways in which culture evolves;
- General evolution in which the organization adapts to its environment.
- A specific evolution of teams or subgroups within the organization to their different environments.
- A guided evolution resulting from cultural insights on the part of leaders.
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- A guided evolution through encouraging teams to learn from each other, and empowering selected
hybrids from subcultures that are better adapted to current realities.
- A planned and managed culture change through creation of parallel systems of steering committees
and project oriented task forces.
- A partial or total culture destruction through new leadership that eliminates the carriers of the
former culture.
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