‫مادة االشعة البيطرية للمرحلة الرابعة‬
‫المصادر المعتمدة ‪:‬‬
‫‪1. Text book‬‬
‫‪Diagnostic Radiology and Ultrasonography of the Dog and Cat‬‬
‫‪J.Kevin Kealy .Hester McAllister .John P.Graham‬‬
‫‪FIFTH EDITION 2011‬‬
‫‪2. Text book‬‬
‫‪Veterinary diagnostic radiology‬‬
‫‪Thrall‬‬
‫‪Fifth edition 2007‬‬
‫كتاب االشعة البيطرية المنهجي‬
‫‪3.‬‬
‫كتاب الجراحة البيطرية المنهجي‬
‫‪4.‬‬
‫مدرس المادة ( المدرس الدكتور همام حسام الدين محمد‬
‫نزهت)‪.‬‬
‫مالحظة ‪:‬‬
‫‪ -1‬الصفحات من( ‪) 3‬الى (‪ )5‬لالطالع فقط‪.‬‬
‫‪ -2‬الصفحة رقم (‪.)11‬لالطالع فقط‬
‫‪ -3‬المادة االمتحانية المطلوبة لالمتحان هي من الصفحة (‪ )2‬لغاية‬
‫الصفحة (‪ )11‬داخل ‪.‬‬
‫مع تمنياتنا لكم بالنجاح والتوفيق‪.‬‬
‫م‪.‬د‪.‬همام حسام الدين محمد نزهت‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪Page | 1‬‬
Veterinary radiology:
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Veterinary radiology: science which deals with the medical case
by using the radiation power of some irradiated elements like x-rays, alfa,
beta, gamma, and CO 60. This x-rays were discovered by chance by A
German physicist (W.C.Roentgen) on November 8, 1895.these rays
quickly put to use for medical purpose .for example, Angiography was
first described in 1896.Roentgen was awarded the first Nobel Prize for
Physics in recognition of his discovery.
The x-ray can be used in.
1) Costumer services. (Check point, reconstruction building and method,
for evaluate the main working of the great art and painting).
2) For medical cases. (Diagnosis, treatment, prognosis).
A radiograph:
Is an image consisting of the outline of structure and their varying
densities.
Or it is an image made up of shadows of different opacities.
Five observation of significance can be made from the study of
radiograph, as far as abnormalities. The changes which can be detected
radiographically in:
 Size
 Shape
 Number
 Position
 Opacity
2
Fluoroscopy:
Is an imaging of structures in real time using x-rays and an image
intensifier. There is an increased hazard with this technique. It should
not replace conventional radiography.
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ULTRASOUND:
Ultrasound denotes high-frequency sound waves inaudible to the
human ear. Audible sound frequency is of the order of 50 to 20,000
Kilohertz (1KHz = 1000 cycles per second).In a diagnostic ultrasound
a puls of ultrasound waves is directed into the body .It traverses the
tissues Until it reach reflecting surface from which it is reflected back
to the transmitter which act as recever.the returning signs is called
echo. The returning echoes reach a computer that processes the signal
and displays them on screen as two –dimensional (2-D)
representation.( The purpose of a ultrasonography is used to chart,
measure, or analyze internal body systems or organs with a
demonstrative imaging technique applied with high-frequency sound
waves).
DOPPLER:
Doppler ultrasonography is used to identify blood flow and to
calculate pressure gradients across cardiac valves.
3
Page | 4
Digital radiography (DR):
involves translating x-ray energy into electric signal that is in turn
converted to digital data (numbers).the process may be
direct,indirector hybrid.
Computed radiography (CR):
And digital radiography produced radiographic image with the use of
intensifying screen and film.
Computed tomography (CT):
Is an imaging method that uses the principle of tomography.
Tomography is the demonstration of a slice through the body
displayed without interference from structures lying above or below
the level under examination.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI):
Unlike ct, no ionizing radiation is used in magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI).MRI uses hydrogen atoms to generate an image
.hydrogen is universally distributed in the body, principally in water
molecules.
4
Page | 5
Nuclear medicine (SCINTIGRAPHY):
Is a branch of nuclear medicine .it is an imaging technique in which
radionuclides (radioactive elements emitting gamma rays) are
administered to a subject. The radionuclides are attached to chemicals
to form radiopharmaceuticals that accumulate in the tissues of
interest. Most radiopharmaceuticals are analogues of physiological
substances or biologic organic molecules.
5
The medical use of the x-rays power
Skeletal system:
Plain radiography
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1. Normal radiographic appearances.
2. Diagnosis of most of bones and joints affections and diseases.
(Fracture, osteomylitis, osteosarcoma, joint dislocation, and Hip
dysplasia).
3. Treatment.
a. Therapeutic dose.
b. To decide best method for fixation.
6
Digestive system:
Plain, contrast radiography, and double contrast radiography
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Normal radiographic appearances.
Physiological action of the stomach.
Diagnosis of digestive obstruction (partial or complete).
Diverticulum and anomalies.
Foreign body (tumor, granulation tissues, metallic or non metallic
mass).
Diaphragmatic hernia.
Displacement.
Torsion.
Enlargement.
7
Urinary system:
Plain, contrast radiography, and double contrast radiography.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Normal radiographic appearances.
Obstruction partial or complete.
Anomalies.
Abnormal mass (calculi, tumor).
Displacement.
Enlargement.
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Page | 9
Genital system: plain radiography.
1. Normal radiographic appearances.
2. Fracture (Os penis).
3. Anomalies.
4. Pregnancy diagnosis. (Number of fetus, statues, age of fetus, and
time of parturition).
5. Uterus affection. (Mummified fetus, macerated fetus, ectopic
pregnancy, and emphysematous fetus).
Cardiovascular system: plain and contrast radiography.
1. Normal radiographic appearances.
2. Heart enlargement.
3. Heart displacement.
4. Shunt or rupture.
5. Occlusion.
6. Abnormal mass (brain tumor).
9
Definition of the x-rays:
Page | 10
Short, straight, electromagnetic waves, travel at the speed of light
(186.000 mil/second),invisible, cannot be felt, have no charge, have no
mass, cannot be deflected by magnetic fields, cause certain substances to
fluoresce, can expose photographic emulsions, can ionize atoms, and can
penetrate body with different degree or level, and lenses without
deviation.
Its clinical application is.
1. Penetration ability.
For the solid, liquid, and gases material which depend on.
 Atomic number. Negative relationship.
 Thickness of the body. Negative relationship.
 Density. Negative relationship.
 Wave length. Negative relationship.
2. Photographic ability.
When the x-rays crushes with the silver bromide which coated
the x-ray film, A chemical reaction was occurs and due to the
ionizing ability of the x-rays, the end of this reaction is to separate
silver ions with positive charge and bromide ions with negative
charge and invisible picture was formed and can be visible after
treated the film with the developing solution.
3. Fluorescent ability.
When the x-rays crush with some chemical materials, chemical
reaction was occurs and light formed like (calcium tungstate with
blue light, or zinc cadmium sulphat with green light). This light
helps to reduce the time which needed to control the animal
movement.
4. Ionizing ability.
After the x-rays crushed with the atoms some electrons can be
removed, and change to the ionizing status. All the ability and the
biological effect are due to this property.
5. Biological ability.
Variation effects of tissues toward the x-rays and this are due to the
ionizing ability of the x-rays.the risk of the x-rays can be
summarized in two points (biological effect and genetic effect).
10
1-Biological effect.
 The ionizing effect of the x-rays leads the body cells to
Page | 11
change its character or death or affect on the cells division.
 Positive relationship between the x-rays and the activity and
ability for regeneration and division.
 Highly organ sensitivity against the x-rays. Lymphatic
system, bone marrow, spleen, genetic system, skin, intestine,
eye lenses and adult bone.
 Less organ sensitivity against the x-rays .bone, muscle,
fibrous tissue, nerve, liver, kidney, and lung.
 The fetus in the uterus may lead to some abnormalities.
 Not allow person under 18 years old and suspected mothers
to enter the x-rays unite unless there is need to this.
2-Genetics effects.
This will lead to congenital abnormalities and reduces the
fertility. (Permanent and temporary sterility).
How to form the x-rays waves:
To form the x-rays waves you need the following.
1. Source of electron and this can be controlled by (Ma) factor.
2. Great movement to these electrons and this can be controlled
by (KV) factor.
3. Sudden stopped of these electrons by special target.
4. Space empty of air completely.
11
Page | 12
Primary beam (primary radiation):
Collection of the photons (which result from the crushing of highly
speed electrons with the target and 99%of these dynamic power change to
heat and only 1% change to x-rays) these waves get out of the tube from
the x-ray window and consist both of the short and long waves of the xrays.the short waves can penetrate the body.
Secondary beam (scattered radiation):
This type of radiation formed after the crushing of the short and
long waves with the body or any barrier and can increased them by
increase the Kv.it is without used and may lead to many defect to the film
and the person in the x-rays unite.
You cannot get rid of these waves (scattered radiation) but you can
reduce its effect by using
1. Compression Band.
2. Cones
3. Grids.1-Parallel grid.
2-Focused grid.
3-Criss cross grid.
4- Potter –Bucky mechanism.
Exposure factors:
1. Mill amperage. The main factor which affecting the number of
electrons and photons and can be measured by mA=0.001 A. This
factor affecting on the radiographic density.
2. Kilo voltage. Affect on the type of x-rays. When increase the Kv
mean increase the power of the crushing of the electrons with the
target, the waves which formed are short can penetrate the body.Kv
in the vet is 40-110.Kv = thickness of the body ×2 + 45 = _+ 2.
3. Exposure time. Increase or decrees this factor affect on the
radiographic opacity, by increase the flow time of electrons from
cathode to anode, that mean increase the number of electrons
which reach the film. The best in the vet radiology is 0.05 second.
Allways decrease the time and increase the mA.
4. Focal film distance.(F.F.D.) the distance between the focusing
spot in the tube and the film, and it is about 30-36 inches
5. Grids ratio.
6. Intensifying screen.
7. X-ray film.
12
Page | 13
Factors affecting the x-rays film:
1. Film blackness / optical density :
2. Contrast:
3. Details:
1.
Film blackness / optical density:
 The black color on the film.
 Degree of the light that pass through the x-ray film
 Amount of silver bromide that precipitates in the xrays film due to the short waves of the x-rays that
penetrates the body then crushed with the film.
Factors which affecting the blackness of the film:
1. Kilo voltage.
2. Milamperage.
3. F.F.D.
4. Intensifying screen.
5. Time.
6. Temp.of solution.
2. Contrast:
The different between the black and white colors on the x-ray
films. Or it is the clearance of the picture that depends on the
contrast.
Factors which affecting on the contrast:
1. The organ.
2. Scattered radiation.
3. Kilovolatage.
4. Film processing.
3. Details:
The entire structure in the film clears even the small part.
Factors affecting the details on the film:
1. Distance between the organ and the film.
2. Distance between the tube and the film.
3. Intensifying screen.
4. Focal spot.
5. The movement of the body.
6. Perfect exposure dose.
13
Page | 14
X-ray sand gamma rays:
X-rays and gamma rays are types of electromagnetic radiation.
The distinction between them is their source; x-rays are produced
by electron interaction outside the nucleus, and gamma rays are
emitted from unstable nuclei.
Other familiar types of electromagnetic radiation include
Radio wave its wave length 30,000(cm)
Radar========================
Microwave its wave length 10 (cm)
Visible light its wave length 0, 0001 (cm)
X-rays its wave length 0, 00000001 (cm)
Radiation units:
For many years the roentgen, rad, and rem were the units used to
quantify radiation exposure, radiation absorption, and equivalent
dose, respectively. After 1977 the international systems of units (SI units)
change the above radiation units because they were not coherent with the
SI system, which changed to coulomb per kilogram and joule per
kilogram, respectively.
One roentgen (R) is equal to production of 2.58 x 10-4 (C/K) coulomb
per kilogram in air.
Maximum permissible dose
The safe dose of x-rays for the team working in the x-ray units.
Rem:
Measurement unites of the x-rays dose, which equal to roentgen.
Mill rem =Mill roentgen= 1/1000.
Absorbed dose:
The amount of radiation such that the absorbed energy is 1 joule/Kg of
tissue.befor SI system were accepted, the unit of absorbed dose was the
rad,which is equal to100 ergs/g.By using appropriate conversion
factors,equal to 1 Gy (SI system for absorbed is the gray) = 100 rad.
Angstrom:
Is measurement unites for wave length of the x-rays.
14
Subject density:
Is the weight per given volume of different body tissue or other objects
.bone is more dense than muscle and muscle is more is more dense than
fat. The dancer an object the more it inhibits the passage of radiation.
Page | 15
Radiographic opacity:
Is a measure of the capacity of a tissues or structure to block x-rays.
Where x-rays readily reach the film. The film appears black after
processing. If the x- rays prevented from reaching part of the film, the
unaffected area will appear translucent (white) on the processed film.
Therefore radiographic opacity is dependent on the subject density, for
the greater subject density, the less radiation reaches the film.
Increase radiographic opacity
Denotes a whiter shadow on the radiograph than would normally be
expected. The term thus refers to increase subject density as reflected on
the radio graph.
Decrease radiographic opacity
Denotes a darker shadow on the radiograph than would normally be
anticipated.the decrease subject density allows more radiation to reach the
film, causing a greater degree of blackening.
Five radiographic opacities can be recognized:
1. Metal.
2. Bone or mineral.
3. Fluid or soft tissue.
4. Fat.
5. Gas (air).
All object inhibit, to some extent, the passage of radiation
Radiolucent:
The structures that absorb little of the incident radiation-rays. Readily
pass through them, and they appear dark on the radiograph. Increased
radiolucency represents decreased subject density.
Radiopaque:
The structures that inhibit the passage of the most of the incident
radiation. Increased radiopasity represents increased subject density.
15
Page | 16
Contrast media:
Chemical agent can be used to identify the inner border of some
internal organs, because the transparency of the organ is same as in the
surrounding tissues.
Or the contrast medium is a substance introduced into the body to outline
structures not normally or poorly seen in the plain radiographs
Contrast media can be classified to either
1.
Negative contrast agents. (Are gases); Such as air, carbon
dioxide, and nitrous oxide. Which outline the structure by
increasing the blackness on the film. And used in imaging the
urinary bladder and proximal or distal gastrointestinal tract.
2.
Positive contrast agents may be particulate suspension or water
soluble.
abarium sulphat is used in suspension and a paste to evaluate the
gastrointestinse. Tract. And not suitable for use in body cavities or
joints because it will provoke an intense granulomatus reaction.
b- water- soluble Such as organic iodides compound and. these
opaque to the x-rays film and appear white color on the film. This
divided into two classes, ionic and nonionic. These agents can be
injected intravenously or introduced into almost anybody cavity to
improve contrast and detect alesion.only the nonionic agents may
be injected into the subarachnoid space to outline the spinal cord in
myelography.
0r can be classified according to the system which used in:
1. For digestive system: such as barium sulphat which is insoluble
and not absorbed from the intestine, to diagnosis partial or
complete obstruction of the intestine ,deformity ,foreign body and
diseases of the digestive wall
2. For cardio vascular system: Such as organic iodine compound,
water – soluble. To check the heart and circulatory system, blood
vessels obstruction, aneurysm, brain tumor, and urinary system
disease.
3. For biliary system: such as organic iodine compound orally or
I/V, for checking gold bladder calculi and bile circulation.
4. For spinal cord canal: a fatty compound, organic salt of iodide.
5. For the soft tissues: such as air, urinary bladder peritoneal cavity,
and joint.
16
X-rays machine consist of:
Page | 17
1.
2.
3.
4.
X-rays tube.
Transformers
Hanger
Regulators (circuit breaker,voltmeter,timer,voltage
Compensator, mill amperage, kilovoltage).
Types of x-rays machines:
1. Portable x-rays machines.
2. Mobile x-rays machines.
3. Fixed x-rays machines
X-rays position:
 Two views should be taken in case of skeletal system, and both
the upper and the lower joint should be included.
 Controlled the animal to avoid any movement and this can be
down at least by two person or by using tranquilizer, or general
anesthesia.
 Using of compression band or rubber foam blocks or leg ties.
 Standing position, lateral recumbent left or right, dorsal, ventral.
Direction of the x-ray:
Anterposterior view. (Craniocaudal).
Posteroanterior view.
Dorsoventral view.
Ventrodorsal view.
Mediolateral view.
Lateromedial view.
Lateral-lateral right view.
Lateral-lateral left view.
All the above with oblique view
17
Radiography of the digestive system:
Page | 18
 Barium sulphat with high atomic number 56, which lead to
increase the radiographic opacity on the image and increase the
contrast within the abdominal organ and the contrast media.
 prepare the animal prior to the contrast radiography,
1. By empty the digestive system.
2. Off food 24 hours prior to technique and water about 12
hours.
 Any sedative or general anesthesia leads to slow in flow of the
contrast media, and obscure the spasm or obstruction of the GIT.
 Mix the barium sulphat with water to make suspension given
orally or by rectal enema.
1. In case of the esophagus the suspension is thick.
2. in the stomach the concentration is 100%,
3. in the intestine the concentration is about 25%,
4. in the large intestine ,the concentration is about 20 – 25 % .
 The dose of the contrast media is 1cm3 /kg .B.w.
 For the double contrast gastrography ,by using air in the stomach
by using stomach tube in dose of 5-10 cm3/kg.B.W .After 10
minute of giving barium sulphat.
 The position is lateral and dorsal view.
 In case of large intestine.
1.
The contrast media is given by rectal enema.
2.
Off food 24 hours prior to the technique.
3.
Give laxative 12 hours prior to the technique.
4.
Give anesthesia to the animal
5.
Empty the colon.
6.
First plain x-ray
7.
Inject the contrast media by rectal catheter (contrast
radiography) after that inject the air (double contrast radiography).
8.
The concentration of the barium sulphat is 20-25% in dose
of 10 cm3/Kg.B.W
18
Radiography of the chest cavity:
Page | 19
 Prepare the animal
1.
Off the food and water 12-24 hours prior to the technique.
2.
Introduce the plastic tube with suitable size to inject the
contrast media
3.
Taking the image after three minute.
 Using iodine compound which dissolved in water and lipid these
excreted from the lungs during the 48 hours.
 Using general anesthesia.
 The dose is 5-20 cm3/Kg.B.W
 The position is at the ventral position.
Radiography of the peritoneal cavity:




For good visualization of the abdominal organs.
Using infiltrated air, or oxygen,cao2 intra peritoneal cavity
Empty the GIT.
Inject the air by para centhesis (Para Medline near the umbilicus
using sterile syringe in region in cage 18 1/2 inches cranially to the
head.
 The dose is 200-1000 cm3.
 The position is lateral, dorsal, and ventral.
 Aspirate the air from the opposite side.
Radiography of the urinary system:
Kidney, uretar, urinary bladder and urethra.
 Using of iodine compound which dissolve in water1cm3 /kg. B.W
for small breed and 2 cm3/Kg.B.W for large breed as the contrast
media, given by slowly I/V (2-3 minute) and quickly excreted in
the urinary bladder.
 Prepare the animal prior to the technique.
19
1.
Page | 20
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Off the food 24 hours and water 12 hours prior to the
technique.
Given laxative to empty the GIT.
empty the urinary bladder
General anesthesia.
Put the anima at the dorsal position.
Used the compression band (to increase the pressure on the
abdominal organ for increase the contrast of the internal
organ, and to slow motion for the contrast media.
Plain x-ray prior to inject the contrast media, and then take
the contrast radiography after 5 minutes, 10 minutes, and
15 minutes.
Remove the compression band and take another image for
the visualization of the uretar, urinary bladder, and urethra.
Dorsal position, ventrodorsal view.
Cystography (radiography of the urinary bladder).
Prepare the animal as usual manner.
1. Contrast (cystography) Inject iodine compound which
dissolved in water in concentration of 5-10 %.the dose is
10cm3/Kg.B.W
2. (pnemocystography) Inject the air in dose of 25-200cm3
depending on the body weight.
3. Double contrast cystography,first inject the iodine then
evacuate it and inject the air
20