The city of Rome was founded on a group of hills about fourteen miles from the sea on the
Italian peninsula. The hills sat on a plateau above a plain. The Tiber River flowed down from
the Apennine Mountains. This mountain range ran north and south through nearly the entire
length of the peninsula. Rome was not right on the sea, but the Romans had easy access to the
sea. This helped them develop trade with merchants from Greece and Carthage. The earliest
Romans were shepherds and farmers. They lived on the plain just east of the Tiber River and in
the nearby hills. Their land was known as Latium, and they were called Latin’s. Their language
came to be known as Latin.
From 600s BCE to 509 BCE, Rome was ruled by the Etruscans, a people that lived across the
Tiber River. In 509 BCE the Etruscans were driven from Rome and the people established a
republic. Italy was a dangerous place during this period. Rome created an alliance of cities in
Latium which became known as the Latin League. Latium was peaceful until 390 BCE when the
Gaul’s (warriors from present day France) swept into Italy destroying Etruscan cities in the
north and burning Rome in 390 BCE.
Rome was quickly rebuilt and a new army was raised. The Gaul’s had weakened the Etruscans,
presenting the Romans with an opportunity conquer central and northern Italy. In addition,
Rome defeated Greek colonies established in the south giving them control of all Italy.
Carthage (located on the other side of the Mediterranean Sea) was Rome's only competition at
this time. They had many of the same resources, and both dominated their respective trade
powers. Rome and Carthage knew that in order to be the most powerful, one would have to
defeat the other. The battles between them were known as the Punic Wars.
Rome had a strong army. Carthage was best known as a sea power. Its ships dominated the
waters of the Mediterranean. Rome built a large fleet of advanced warships equal to those of
Carthage and won the first war, gaining the island of Sicily as a province.
The Second Punic War started a Carthaginian general named Hannibal launched a surprise
invasion of Italy. Hannibal and his army, which included over thirty elephants, started out from
Spain. They marched eastward around the Mediterranean coast, over the Pyrenees and Alps,
and into northern Italy. Hannibal nearly captured Rome. Finally, the Romans drove him out of
Italy ending the Second Punic War. Rome laid siege to Carthage during the Third Punic War and
destroyed the city, making them the dominant power in the Mediterranean region. The
Roman Republic grew during the Punic Wars and continued to expand once they were over.
In 509 BCE the Etruscans were driven from Rome and the people established a republic. The
Roman Republic was different from direct democracy. In a direct democracy the citizens could
vote on all issues. In Rome they chose a group of people who voted on all decisions. This is
known as representative democracy.
The Romans also set up a separation of powers so one person or branch of government would
not have too much control. It was a tripartite system. There were three different parts or
branches of the government: the Senate and the Assemblies (Legislative), the Consuls
(President), and the Judges (Judicial).
The US government is also based on a written Constitution. The Constitution is a blue print for
our government and is considered to be the highest law of the land. Roman law was written
down in the Twelve Tablets. The Twelve Tablets covered important subjects such as debt,
injury, marriage, and land rights. The Twelve Tablets spelled out the rights and privileges of all
citizens, reducing conflict between plebeians and patricians.
In the second and first century BCE, many changes took place in Rome. Four men helped turn
the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire.
Tiberius Gracchus
Gaius Marius
Sulla
Julius Caesar
He proposed that Rome divide public lands among the returning military and
their families. This was to address the issue of homeless citizens. This scared the
Senate (they owned the land) and he was murdered.
He promised them to men who would be soldiers and later citizenship. This
angered the Senate and he was forced to flee to North Africa.
Sulla restructured the city's politics and strengthened the Senate's power after
forcing Gaius Marius to leave Rome. Then he returned to his original military
command.
Seized power and declared himself dictator, ending the practice of appointed
Consuls. Power was now passed from father to son (inherited)
The Romans of the Republic had a very strict social structure. There was a clear line between the rich
and the poor and the powerful and the weak.
There was also a difference in the way men and women were treated. Woman where not viewed as
citizens and were limited to managing the household.
The ending of the Punic Wars began an age of expansion for the Romans. Roman would use conquest
and war to gain new territory and access to new trade goods and natural resources. The Romans built
roads, improving trade and encouraging growth, through the area the conquered and were generally
tolerant of different religious practices.
The Roman Republic developed many new technologies and trading relationships during this period.
This helped make the Roman Empire very wealthy and created a larger merchant class. Trade with India
and China increased after the conquest of Egypt. By the end of Augustus’s reign, over 120 ships were
making the voyage from Egypt to the Far East every year. Silk for women’s clothing became more
popular than ever. Other precious cargo included cinnamon and ivory. Many of the territories
conquered by Rome had rich resources. They were especially rich in metals like iron, lead, and copper.
Hundreds of thousands of tons of these metals were mined each year. Roman’s economy also
benefitted from the taxes they collected each year from their conquered territories.
The way food was grown changed during the Roman Republic period. During the Punic Wars and the
expansion that followed, Rome forced many farmers to leave their land and become soldiers. Wealthy
landowners turned farming into a business. Small farmers were not able to compete with the larger
farms during this period. Many small farmers ended up selling their land to the wealthy landowners.
Politics in the Roman Empire were very different from the Roman Republic. In the Roman Empire, the
emperor held all the power. He controlled the entire government. The Senate could no longer make
laws without the emperor’s approval. The Empire was divided into provinces. The Senate chose the
governor for areas that were once part of the original Roman Republic (Senatorial Provinces).
Imperial provinces were located around the borders of the Empire and under the control of the
emperor. He selected the governors for Imperial Provinces.
The first Roman emperor was Augustus. The last emperor was Romulus. He was forced to step down
after the Roman Empire was finally defeated. Between these two leaders, over 80 emperors ruled in
Rome.
Augustus
Vespasian
Trajan
Hadrian
Marcus Aurelius
Nerva
First Emperor
Appointed governors to rule Imperial Provinces
Reformed the tax system and created a police department to enforce laws
He was commander of the Roman legion (highly trained military unit)
Built the Roman Coliseum
Greatest expansion of Roman territory
Trajan's Market (called "the world's oldest shopping mall" by some) was built
Known for his kindness
Ended Rome's territorial expansion and built walls to mark its borders.
Fond of Greek culture and learning
Promoted army officers based on merit, rather than their social standing
He persecuted thousands of Christians
He helped poor farmers by giving them land.
Diocletian
Constantine
Theodosius
Established a tetrarchy ( a rule by four rulers) to try and maintain order, failed
He built a second capital in the East, which led to the division of the Empire.
First Roman emperor to convert to Christianity
Issued the Edict of Milan, which made Christianity legal in the Roman Empire
Made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire
Ordered the destruction of many pagan temples in Rome, Greece, and Egypt
During the reign of Augustus, the Roman Empire entered into a period of peace called the Pax Romana.
The Pax Romana lasted for 200 years. Power struggles led to the murder of many emperors in the
century following the Pax Romana. The Empire suffered from political and economic instability during
this period.
As the Roman Empire grew, it became difficult to control the people in distant provinces. In 293 CE,
Diocletian split Rome into two separate, but not equal, parts. The Eastern Roman Empire would include
Roman–controlled areas in what is now Turkey and parts of Asia. The Western Roman Empire would
include parts of Europe and North Africa. The division weakened the empire and contributed to its
decline.
The Western Empire had trouble raising money to maintain and protect its borders. Slavery, which had
always been a part of Roman society, was also making it harder for Western Romans to make a living
and pay their taxes. More soldiers were needed to protect the Western Empire, but the people could
not pay the required taxes. This left the Empire open for invasion from various barbarian tribes.
Western Emperors hired German mercenaries to supplement the Roman army; however the German
mercenaries were not always loyal.
The Roman Empire no longer exists, however it left a lasting legacy. Many roads and aqueducts built
before the fall are still used today. Christianity is a prominent religion. Early Christian’s were
persecuted for refusing to worship the emperor as a god. Constantine was the first Roman emperor to
convert to Christianity and he issued the Edict of Milan, which made Christianity legal in the Roman
Empire. Theodosius made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire and ordered the
destruction of many pagan temples in Rome, Greece, and Egypt. Paul, a Christian missionary, would
later use Roman roads to travel throughout the empire and share his message.
The Romans borrowed many aspects of Greek culture and implemented them into their own. Today
aspects of Roman culture can still be found. Perhaps the best example is in our language. The use of
Latin spread across Europe and became the common language of many universities. Many of the
world's most commonly spoken languages are based on letters and sounds of Latin, making the Latin
alphabet the most recognized alphabet in the world today. Latin is also the basis for many legal and
medical terms commonly used today.