Nōmen Latin I, Magistra Snyder / Magister Jaffe, R ______ Term 1, IA Review Packet This packet belongs in the Reference Information section of your binder. It condenses all of the material we have covered so far into one place. Parts of Speech We are concerned with SIX different parts of speech. 1. Latin ADVERBS have only one form, and they modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. a. e.g. ĪRĀTĒ dīcit – she speaks ANGRILY b. NB: we have not discussed the forms of adverbs and you have none yet in your vocabulary list. They will be glossed for you. 2. Latin CONJUNCTIONS have only one form, and they separate and begin clauses. a. e.g. orāculum dīcit, SED vera verba nōn dīcit – she speaks a prophecy, BUT she does not speak true words. 3. Latin ADJECTIVES modify a noun. a. They appear in a masculine, a feminine, and a neuter form – īrātus, īrātī, īrātum angry b. Latin adjectives agree with the noun they modify in gender, number, and case. i. e.g. deī ĪRĀTĪ VERBA verba dīcunt – ANGRY gods speak TRUE words. 4. Latin PREPOSITIONS have only one form, and they are followed by a noun. Together, the preposition and the noun form a PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE. a. The noun following a preposition is called the object of the preposition. b. The object of the preposition will always be in the ablative or accusative case, according to the preposition. c. Prepositions are listed together with the case of the object that they take and their meaning: sine, (+ABL), without / ad, (+ACC), towards d. e.g. amīcus IN SILVĀ petit – the friend seeks IN THE FOREST e. NB: The object of a preposition can never be a subject, a direct object, an ablative of means, or anything else. It is ONLY the object of a preposition. Prepositional phrases are super easy to translate once you have identified them! 5. Latin NOUNS name a person, a place, an abstract idea, or a thing. a. Nouns appear in their nominative singular form, their genitive singular form, their gender, and then their meaning – vir, virī, m. man; husband b. Nouns change their form according to the grammatical role that they play in a clause. A noun’s case identifies its grammatical role. Its number identifies it as singular or plural. 6. Latin VERBS describe an action or an occurrence. a. Verbs appear with four principal parts and then a meaning – i. cupiō, cupere, cupīvī, cupītus want b. Verbs change endings to show their person and number. e.g. amās – YOU love. c. Verbs change form to show their tense, which tells us when the verb happened. amās – you WERE loving – present tense, vs. amāBĀs – you WERE loving – imperfect tense. 1 Noun Translations and Declensions “The man eats cake with a fork in the house of his friend.” The heart of every clause in any human language is the VERB. Every clause must have a verb, and a person or thing who is doing the verb. All nouns and parts of speech stand in relation to the verbal action of the clause. Latin nouns can play the following roles in relation to the verb: A Latin noun can act as a SUBJECT, when it is the do-er or be-er of the verb. The man is the subject of the sentence above. He is the one doing the eating. Who or what is eating? The man is. A Latin noun can act as a DIRECT OBJECT, when it is the recipient of the verbal action. The cake is the direct object of the sentence above. It is the thing being eaten. Who or what is being eaten? Cake is. A Latin noun can be the OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION when it is part of a prepositional phrase. House is an object of a preposition in the sentence above. Where is the action happening? In a house. A Latin noun can MODIFY ANOTHER NOUN. The noun friend modifies the noun house. Whose house is the action happening in? His friend’s. A Latin noun can show the MEANS or WAY by which the verb happens. The word fork shows the means by which the action happens. How is the man eating the cake? With a fork. In ENGLISH, we know which noun is acting as the SUBJECT, which noun is acting as the DIRECT OBJECT, etc. because of the ORDER in which the words appear. In EVERY English sentence, the subject is placed immediately before the verb, and the direct object is placed immediately after the verb. In LATIN, words can appear IN ANY ORDER. “The cake in of the friend the house with a fork the man eats.” Readers of Latin know which noun is acting as the subject, which noun is acting as the direct object, etc. only because of the ENDINGS of the words. These endings tell readers the CASE of the noun (what role it is playing in the sentence) and the NUMBER of the noun (singular vs. plural). When you translate Latin, your job is first to IDENTIFY the verb, the subject, the direct object, etc., and then to simply PLACE THEM IN ORDER in English with the subject first, then the verb, and then the direct object. ONCE YOU HAVE CORRECTLY TRANSLATED THE SUBJECT, VERB, AND DIRECT OBJECT, ALL THE OTHER PIECES WILL FALL INTO PLACE FOR YOU. 2 Nouns and the Case System Latin SUBJECTS appear in the NOMINATIVE CASE (as do PREDICATES NOMINATIVE) Latin DIRECT OBJECTS appear in the ACCUSATIVE CASE. Latin OBJECTS OF PREPOSITIONS appear either in the ACCUSATIVE CASE or the ABLATIVE CASE, depending on the preposition. Latin nouns that MODIFY OTHER NOUNS appear in the GENITIVE CASE. Latin nouns showing the MEANS by which the action happens appear in the ABLATIVE CASE. The nominative, genitive, accusative, and ablative cases take the endings shown below: Nominative Singular Genitive Singular Accusative Singular Ablative Singular Nominative Plural Genitive Plural Accusative Plural Ablative Plural 1st Declension 2nd Declension 2nd Declension (Neuter) -a -ae -am -ā -ae -ārum -ās -īs -us/r -ī -um -ō -ī -ōrum -ōs -īs -um -ī -um -ō -a -ōrum -a -īs When one puts Latin nouns into these different CASES and NUMBERS by switching their endings, one DECLINES the noun. Latin nouns belong to families called DECLENSIONS. A noun that belongs to the 1st DECLENSION always takes the endings listed in the 1st DECLENSION column. You can only judge the CASE of a 1st declension noun, and therefore how it should be translated, by considering 1st declension endings. A noun that belongs to the 2nd declension will only ever take the endings listed in the 2nd DECLESION column. Neuter nouns belong to declensions like any other noun, but there are two special rules that apply always and forever to every neuter noun: 1) The nominative singular and the accusative singular look identical. 2) The nominative plural and the accusative plural have the ending –a. Together, we call these patterns the NEUTER RULE. 3 Let’s DECLINE nouns from the first, second, and second-neuter DECLENSIONS: The noun fēmīna, fēmīnae, f. woman belongs to the 1st declension. We know this because the genitive singular form ends in –ae. Nominative Singular Genitive Singular Accusative Singular Ablative Singular fēmīna fēmīnae fēmīnam fēmīnā Nominative Plural Genitive Plural Accusative Plural Ablative Plural fēmīnae fēmīnārum fēmīnās fēmīnīs The noun ager, agrī, m. field belongs to the 2nd declension. We know this because the genitive singular form ends in –ī. Nominative Singular Genitive Singular Accusative Singular Ablative Singular ager agrī agrum agrō Nominative Plural Genitive Plural Accusative Plural Ablative Plural agrī agrōrum agrōs agrīs The noun rēgnum, rēgnī, n. kingdom belongs to the 2nd declension. We know this because the genitive singular form ends in –ī. However, we also notice that this noun is neuter, and we therefore will follow the neuter rule as we decline. Nominative Singular Genitive Singular Accusative Singular Ablative Singular rēgnum rēgnī rēgnum rēgnō Nominative Plural Genitive Plural Accusative Plural Ablative Plural rēgna rēgnōrum rēgna rēgnīs One can translate Latin ONLY IF ONE IS ABLE TO IDENTIFY THE CASE AND NUMBER OF THE NOUNS ONE SEES IN SENTENCES. By identifying the case and number, you will be able to place the nouns in the correct order and translate properly. THERE IS NO OTHER WAY! 4 Verb Tenses and Conjugations Nouns belong to DECLENSIONS and when they change form, they DECLINE. Verbs belong to CONJUGATIONS and when they change form, they CONJUGATE. A Latin verb will always show PERSON and NUMBER in its ending. Person indicates whether the action is being done by the speaker(s), by the person(s) the speaker is addressing, or by other person(s) the speaker is talking about. In the 1st Person, “I” or “we” are the subjects. In the 2nd Person, “you” or “you all” are the subjects. In the 3rd Person, “he/she/it” or “they” are the subjects. A verb’s NUMBER indicates whether the subject is singular or plural (I vs. we, she vs. they, etc.) PERSONAL ENDINGS are placed at the end of verbs to indicate their person and number. 1st SINGULAR I -ō / -m 2nd 3rd -s -t you he/she/it -mus -tis -nt PLURAL we you all they A verb that ends in –ō will always have “I” as a subject translated right before the verb. A verb that ends in –t will always have “he”, “she”, or “it”, OR a singular nominative noun in the clause as a subject translated right before the verb. A verb that ends in –nt will always have “they” OR a plural nominative noun in the clause as a subject translated right before the verb. To be able to conjugate a verb, we must be able to find its PRESENT STEM. To do so, simply chop off the -re at the end of the second principal part. e.g. iubē is the present stem of iubeō, iubēre, iussī, iussus order, command We must also be able to identify the CONJUGATION to which a verb belongs. To do so, simply look at the vowel at the end of the present stem. CONJUGATION NUMBER PRESENT STEM VOWEL PATTERN OF PRINCIPAL PARTS 1 & 2 1st 2nd 3rd 3rd-io 4th -ā -ē -e -e (with –iō) in 1st PP -ī -ō, -āre -eō, -ēre -ō, -ere -iō, -ere -iō, -īre 5 PRESENT TENSE The Latin PRESENT TENSE talks about actions or occurrences happening right now. “you VERB”, “you are VERBing”, “you do VERB” are all correct ways to translate the Latin present tense. To form the present tense, follow the following simple formula: PRESENT STEM + PERSONAL ENDING *Exceptions* 1) In the 1st & 3rd conjugations, the present stem vowel disappears in the 1st person singular. 2) In the 3rd conjugation, the stem vowel –e- changes to –i- before the personal endings. 3) In the 3rd conjugation, the stem vowel changes to –u- in the 3rd person plural. 4) In the 3rd-io conjugation, an –i- appears in front of the personal ending in the 1st person singular, and before the –u- in the 3rd person plural. 5) In the 4th conjugation, a –u- appears before the personal ending. These exceptions are better understood simply by looking at the patterns of the present tense. Let’s conjugate a verb from each conjugation in the present tense. The verb amō, amāre, amāvī, amātus love has the present stem amā- and belongs to the 1st conjugation. Its present tense is: LATIN ENGLISH LATIN ENGLISH 1st amō I love amāmus We love 2nd amās You love amātis You all love 3rd amat He/she/it loves amant They love The verb habeō, habēre, habuī, habitus have has the present stem habē- and belongs to the 2nd conjugation. Its present tense is: LATIN ENGLISH LATIN ENGLISH 1st habeō I have habēmus We have 2nd habēs You have habētis You all have 3rd habet He/she/it has habent They have The verb caedō, caedere, cecidī, caesus strike; kill has the present stem caede- and belongs to the 3rd conjugation. Its present tense is: LATIN ENGLISH LATIN ENGLISH 1st caedō I strike caedimus We strike 2nd caedis You strike caeditis You all strike 3rd caedit He/she/it strikes caedunt They strike The verb capiō, capere, cēpī, captus seize has the present stem cape- and an –iō at the end of the first principal part. It belongs to the 3rd-io conjugation. Its present tense is: LATIN ENGLISH LATIN ENGLISH 1st capiō I seize capimus We seize 2nd capis You seize capitis You all seize 3rd capit He/she/it seizes capiunt They seize 6 The verb veniō, venīre, vēnī, ventus arrive, come has the present stem venī- and belongs to the 4th conjugation. Its present tense is: LATIN ENGLISH LATIN ENGLISH 1st veniō I arrive venīmus We arrive 2nd venīs You arrive venītis You all arrive 3rd venit He/she/it arrives veniunt They arrive The irregular verb sum, esse, to be has the following forms in the present tense: 1st 2nd 3rd LATIN sum es est ENGLISH I am You are He/she/it is LATIN sumus estis sunt ENGLISH We are You all are They are IMPERFECT TENSE The Latin IMPERFECT TENSE talks about action that happened in the past that was ongoing. “you were VERBing” or “you used to VERB” are both correct ways to translate the Latin imperfect tense. To form the imperfect tense, follow the following simple formula: PRESENT STEM + -BĀ- + PERSONAL ENDING *Exceptions* 1) In the first person singular, use the alternate personal ending –m. 2) In the 3rd-io and 4th conjugations, the vowel at the end of the present stem becomes –iēThe verb dō, dare, dedī, datus give has the present stem da- and belongs to the 1st conjugation. Its imperfect tense is: LATIN ENGLISH LATIN ENGLISH 1st dabam I was giving dabāmus We were giving 2nd dabās You were giving dabātis You all were giving 3rd dabat H/S/I was giving dabant They were giving The verb fugiō, fugere, fūgī, fugitus flee, escape has the present stem fuge- and an –iō at the end of the first principal part. It belongs to the 3rd-io conjugation. Its imperfect tense is: LATIN ENGLISH LATIN ENGLISH 1st fugiēbam I was fleeing fugiēbāmus We were fleeing 2nd fugiēbās You were fleeing fugiēbātis You all were fleeing 3rd fugiēbat H/S/I was fleeing fugiēbant They were fleeing The irregular verb sum, esse, to be has the following forms in the imperfect tense: 1st 2nd 3rd LATIN eram erās erat ENGLISH I was You were He/she/it was LATIN erāmus erātis erant ENGLISH We were You all were They were 7 Annotation and Translation Strategy ANNOTATION is a tool to aid translation. If you can annotate a sentence, then you can translate it. Similarly, if you understand a sentence well enough to translate it, then by definition you can annotate it. To translate ANY Latin sentence, take the following steps: 1) COUNT the verbs. There are exactly as many clauses in a sentence as there are conjugated verbs. Use conjunctions and punctuation to divide the sentence into its clauses. a. INFINITIVES – the second principal part of a verb, such as facere “to make” or cupere “to want”, does not stand on its own as a verb but is rather translated after another conjugated verb. It does NOT count when deciding on clauses. 2) UNDERLINE the verb of the clause you are working on. Check its personal ending. If the personal ending is plural, the subject will have to be a plural nominative noun. If the personal ending is singular, the subject will have to be a singular nominative noun. If no noun in the clause matches that description, the subject is implied in the personal ending and you must circle that ending. 3) IDENTIFY any PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. Find any prepositions and put PARENTHASES around it and its object (at least two words). Save these phrases for later, and do nothing with them until you are ready to translate. 4) IDENTIFY the SUBJECT. Every verb has a subject, a person or thing doing the action. Look through the words in the clause for one or more with a nominative ending. That is your subject. CIRCLE it. If there is no nominative word that matches the verb, CIRCLE the verb’s personal ending. 5) IDENTIFY the DIRECT OBJECT. Many clauses have a direct object. Look through the words in the clause for one or more with an accusative ending. BOX it. a. PREDICATES NOMINATIVE – the verb to be never takes a direct object! Instead you should expect to see another noun in the nominative case which will be translated instead of a direct object.) 6) IDENTIFY any GENITIVE NOUNS. Genitive nouns modify a nearby noun. HOOK the genitive noun to the noun that it modifies. NOW you are ready to translate! 7) Write the SUBJECT (paying attention to its number- singular or plural). 8) Write the VERB (paying attention to its tense – present or imperfect). 9) Write the DIRECT OBJECT (paying attention to its number) OR write the predicate nominative. 10) Decide where the PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES will make sense and add them in (paying attention to the number of the object of the preposition). 11) Add in GENITIVES by translating them next to the noun to which they are hooked (paying attention to the number of genitives). 12) Translate any lingering ABLATIVES OF MEANS using BWIOF – “by, with, in, on, from.” 8