STAAR/EOC Academy
Johnson/McCollom
Types of Cells
Eukaryotic-You and Me - Animals and Plant
Prokaryotic-Bacteria- PRO means NOOOO Nucleus -Eubacteria and Archaebacteria
Cell Organelles
A. Cell Wall-Protection and Support-In plant cells and Bacteria as well.
B. Nucleus-Control Center of Cell-The Brain
C. Ribosomes-Makes Protein-Translations occurs here-Found on Rough ER-Small Dots
D. Endoplasmic Reticulum-Smooth and Rough-Assembles Proteins-Rough has Ribosomes
-Looks like a maze -Located near Nucleus
E. Mitochondria-Power Plant of the Cell- Cellular Respiration occurs here- Makes ATP.
-C6 H12 O6 + O2  CO2 + H20 + ATP- Looks like a Snake
F. Lysosome-Digestion occurs here-Stomach of the Cell
G. Centriole-Cell Division- Small dots located near Nucleus-Spindle fibers attach here.
H. Chloroplast-Found in Plants ONLY. Photosynthesis occurs here-Looks like Poker Chips
-CO2 +H2O  O2 + H2O + C6 H12 O6
I. Cell Membrane-Protection and Support-Phospholipid Bilayer-Made of Phospholipids, Fatty acid tails
and Protein Channels-Selectively Permeable- Allows things in and out of the cell
J. Nucleolus-Small dark dot in the center of the Nucleus-Makes Ribosomes
K. Chromosomes-Make DNA-Found in the Nucleus-Blue Print of life.
L. Golgi Body/Golgi Apparatus-Packages proteins-Looks like pancakes-UPS/FedEx
M. Vacuole-Water and mineral storage-Large in plants.
N. Cytoplasm-Liquid portion of the cell-Water in the pool.
O. Flagella-long whip-like structure found on some cells. Used for locomotion/movement - Sperm
P. Cilia-hair-like structures found on some cells-Used for locomotion/movement
Q. Nuclear Membrane/Envelope-Membrane around the nucleus-Allows things in and out.
Homeostasis-Process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment. Constant internal condition.
Regulates what is in and out of the cell.
Cell membrane-Also called Plasma Membrane or Phospholipid Bilayer. Regulates what enters and leaves the cell.
Also protects and supports it. Made of phospholipids.
Phospholipid
Cell Membrane
Membrane Functions
Diffusion-Where particles pass through a membrane fro a high to low concentration gradient. No energy required.
Osmosis-A type of diffusion that is only associated with WATER. High to low concentration gradient. No energy
required
A. Isotonic-Water particles are balanced on the inside of the cell as well as the outside.
B. Hypertonic-There is more water in the cell that outside of the cell so the cell shrinks. EX. 90% in the cell and 10%
outside. Remember water in the body will balance out.
C. Hypotonic-There is more water on the outside of the cell than inside. So the cell will swell and possibly burst.
Hypo sounds like HIPPO. Hippos are FAT!!!!!
EX. 10% water in cell and 90% water outside. Remember that water will balance out.
Johnson/McCollom
Facilitated Diffusion-Type of diffusion where large molecule cannot diffuse across the phospholipids. Molecules have to
pass through the protein channels. High to low concentration. DOES NOT REQUIRE ENERGY!!!!!!
Active Transport-DIFFERENT than the other types of diffusion. LOW to HIGH CONCENTRATION. This process
requires the cell to transport material in the opposite direction. Usually requires the protein channels. PROCESS
REQUIRES ENERGY!!!!! Very important to know this!!!!
Diffusion/Osmosis
Facilitated Diffusion
Active Transport
Other information about cells
Pinocytosis- Process by which a cell takes in liquid from the surrounding environment- CELL DRINKING
Phagocytosis- Process by which extensions of cytoplasm surround and engulf large particles and take them into the cell.
CELL EATING
Endocytosis- Process by which a cell takes material into the cell by folding of the cell membrane.
Exocytosis- Process by which a cell releases large amounts of material. EXO sounds like exit. Go to the bathroom!
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) - one of the principal chemical compounds that living things use to store and release
energy. Made in the MITOCHONDRIA by CELLULAR RESPIRATION. ENERGY!!!!!!!
Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP)-reduced when an ATP molecule looses one of its phosphate molecules
Photosynthesis (Plants or Autotrophs) and Cellular Respiration (Animals or Heterotrophs)
Johnson/McCollom
STAAR/EOC-Cells, Organelles, and Functions
Animal Cell
Plant Cell
Johnson/McCollom
Specialized Cells
Many organisms are multi-cellular - they are made up of lots of cells, not just one! Many of these cells are specialized,
sharing out the life processes (they work together as a team, supporting the organism). Specialist cells occur in both
animals and plants…
Animal/ Plant Cell
Picture
Function
Specialization
To carry oxygen
 Large surface area for
oxygen
 Hemoglobin which binds
the oxygen
 No nucleus
To carry nerve impulses to
different parts of the body
 Long
 Connections at each end
 Can carry electrical signals
To store fat when there is
excess



To absorb water and
minerals
 Large surface area which
helps it to absorb water and
minerals
 Thin cell wall makes it
easy for minerals to pass
through
To absorb sunlight (needed
for photosynthesis)
 Large surface area
 Many chloroplasts
(containing chlorophyll,
for photosynthesis)
To conduct water, minerals,
and nutrients through out a
plant
 Elongated, tubular shape
with thin walled sieve
tubes
 Consists of xylem and
phloem vessels
 Gives mechanical strength
to the plant
Red blood cells
Nerve cell
Large
Round
Empty looking
Fat cells
Root hair cells
Leaf cell
Stem cells
Unit 2 Biomolecules!!!! You are what you eat!!!
Swain/Gaas
Carbohydrates-You get these from all plant matter!
Carbohydrates are made of CARBON, HYDROGEN, and OXYGEN.
Monomers (BUILDING BLOCKS) are sugars. Also called monosaccharides or glucose. C6 H12 O6.
Functions (THEIR JOB) is to supply the body with ENERGY!! Also in plants they are for structure
and support (CELL WALL)
Examples are
Glucose-Blood Sugar
STARCH-Complex sugar found in Potatoes, Corn, and Pasta. NOT found in MEAT!!! This is
energy!!!!
Cellulose-Used to make cell walls in plants, Support and Structure, Fiber for humans. We
cannot digest it!!!
Polysaccharides (Polymers) are long chains of monosaccharides. Like a chain. Very Complex
Sugar!!!
Chemical Indicators- Benedicts Solution tests for Sugar!!! Will turn sugars ORANGE!! Lugol’s
or Iodine will turn STARCH black.
Molecular Structure
Monosaccharide
Bread
Polysaccharides are Complex. EX STARCH
Pasta
Fruit and Vegetables
Potatoes=Starch
ALL CARBOHYDRATES ARE FOR ENERGY!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Unit 2 Biomolecules!!!! You are what you eat!!!
Swain/Gaas
Lipids- You get these from Animal Fats, Oils, Nuts, and BEESWAX!!!
Lipids are made of CARBON, HYDROGEN, AND OXYGEN.
Monomers (BUILDING BLOCKS) are or is 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acid tails.
Functions of lipids are to STORE ENERGY. Ex BODY FAT. Also MAKES up part of the cell
membrane. Lipids function also as an insulator in the winter. Ex Coat or Blanket. Reduces heat
loss.
Examples are
Body Fat-Storage
Oils and Waxes!! Cooking Oil, Beeswax, Car Wax, Candle Wax!!!!
Cell Membrane- Phospholipid Bilayer or Plasma Membrane.
Hormones-Testosterone and Estrogen.
Chemical Indicators- None.
Identify lipids by placing a drop of a substance on a piece of paper. If it becomes translucent it
is a lipid. Ex. French Fries from McDonalds that have been sitting in a bag for a while. Oil or
Grease will make the bag somewhat see through.
Saturated Fat=Solid at room temperature. Unsaturated=Liquid at room temperature.
Molecular Structure
Saturated and Unsaturated Fats
Meat(Saturated)
Glycerol and 3 Fatty Acid Tails
Fish
Oils(Unsaturated)
Beeswax
All LIPIDS ARE FOR STORAGE!!!!!!!!
Unit 2 Biomolecules!!!! You are what you eat!!!
Swain/Gaas
Proteins- You get these from All Animal Products and Beans. Does not come from
POTATOES (Starch)!!!!!
Proteins are made of CARBON, HYDROGEN, OXYGEN, NITROGEN, and SULFER.
Monomers (Building Blocks) are AMINO ACIDS.
Function of proteins are to BUILD MUSCLE, MAKES ENZYMES, and STRUCTURE AND
SUPPORT OF ALL ORGANISMS. ENZYMES SPEED UP CHEMICAL REACTIONS.
Examples are
Muscles- If you want big muscles eat a lot of protein and lift weights!!
Hair and Cartilage- Protein Rich Shampoo and Lotion!!!
Hormones- Testosterone and Estrogen.
Polypeptides (Polymers) are long chains of amino acids. They are together by peptide bonds.
Chemical Indicator- Biuret Solution tests for protein. Protein will turn light purple if it is
present in the food source.
Molecular Structure
Amino Acid
Farm Animals (Animal Products)
Polypeptides
Beans
Polypeptides
Tofu
ALL PROTEINS ARE FOR STUCTURE AND SUPPORT (MUSCLE
GROWTH). THEY ALSO MAKE ENZYMES AND HORMONES!!!!
Unit 2 Biomolecules!!!! You are what you eat!!!
Swain/Gaas
Nucleic Acids- You do not eat these!!! DNA and RNA you get this from your parents!
Monomers (Building Blocks) are Nucleotides. They are made of a PHOSPHATE, 5 CARBON
SUGAR, and a NITROGEN BASE. Phosphate and the 5 carbon sugar make the backbone of DNA
and RNA.
Functions (THEIR JOB) are to store genetic material (DNA-Blue Print of Life) and to make
proteins (RNA-Protein Synthesis). Synthesis means to create or make!!!
Examples are Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA-Double Stranded) and Ribonucleic Acid (RNASingle Stranded)
Molecular Structure
Nucleotide
DNA-Blueprint (instructions)
Nucleotide
RNA-Makes Proteins
DNA IS THE BLUEPRINT OF LIFE AND RNA MAKES PROTEINS!
TEKS 6C -
Protein Synthesis (Transcription and Translation)
Recall that the transcription process is DNA to RNA and translation is RNA to Protein. Each strand represents a
DNA sequence. Each strand will start with a heart bead.
Color code for beads
• Cytosine = red
• Adenine = white
• Thymine = blue
• Guanine = yellow
• Heart or Star Bead= no meaning
1. Record the DNA base sequence of the strand that starts with a heart bead here:
DNA____________________________________________________________________
o This should be a sequence of letters, G for guanine, T for Thymine and so on.
2. Next, create an mRNA strand using the DNA sequence from above. Write it here:
mRNA___________________________________________________________________
Remember that Uracil (U) will replace Thymine (T).
o The process you have just modeled is called ________________________
3. Go back to step 2 and put a line after every third letter.
o Each group of 3 nucleotides is called a ____________.
4. Use the mRNA codon chart (below) to determine the amino acids that tRNA will bring to each codon.
o ____________________________________________________________________
o The process you have just modeled is called ________________________.
http://www.edhsgreensea.net/Biology/taters/CST.htm
Johnson/Hill
Protein Synthesis
DNA Contains double strand of nucleotides made of deoxyribose sugar, phosphate, and nitrogen bases (Guanine,
Thymine, Adenine, Cytosine)
 provides instructions for the production of proteins in a process known as protein synthesis
 too large to leave the nucleus, so the cell needs to make RNA to send the protein making instructions to the
ribosomes
RNA

contains single strand of nucleotides made of ribose sugar, phosphate, nitrogen bases (guanine, adenine,
cytosine, Uracil)
3 types of RNA:
o Messenger (mRNA)- transcribes (copies) the DNA instructions to take to the cytoplasm
o Transfer (tRNA)- uses anticodons to read sections of mRNA so amino acids can attach to form a protein
o Ribosomal (rRNA)- structural parts of ribosomes that help to build proteins
Base Pairing Rules:
DNA
RNA
A–T
A–U
C–G
C–G
Steps of protein synthesis:
 Transcription- mRNA is made from DNA template and the mRNA single strand is sent to cytoplasm to find a
ribosome. This begins the protein making process.
 Translation- tRNA brings amino acids to the mRNA codon sections to be “read” to create the polypeptide strand
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mrna.gif
Johnson/Hill
Characteristics
Archaebacteria
Eubacteria
Protista
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia
Type of
Reproduction
asexual
asexual
asexual / sexual
asexual / sexual
asexual / sexual
asexual / sexual
Method of
Movement
flagella
flagella
cilia, flagella,
pseudopods
immobile
immobile
mobile
(various)
Examples
methanogens
Prokaryotic or
Eukaryotic
Has a nucleus?
Single-celled
or Multicellular
Method for
Obtaining
Energy
Word Bank (Use each term/group of terms once):
prokaryotic
eukaryotic
eukaryotic
eukaryotic
eukaryotic
prokaryotic
autotrophs
immobile heterotrophs
single-celled
multicellular
immobile
multicellular
single-celled
flagella
flagella
asexual
asexual
chemotrophs
yes
yes
no
yes
no
yes
mobile (various)
asexual/sexual
asexual/sexual
asexual/sexual
asexual/sexual
methanogens
both (mostly single-celled)
lions/birds/sponge/jellyfish
cyanobacteria/streptococcus
ferns/moss/flowers
both (mainly multicellular) mushrooms/yeast/lichen
amoeba/paramecium/algae
cilia, flagella, pseudopods
autotrophs/heterotrophs/chemotrophs
Heterotrophs (protozoa)/autotrophs (algae)
Goodland/Bishop
Terms to be familiar with when distinguishing between the 6 Kingdoms of Life.
Prokaryote – A cell that does not contain a true nucleus. The cell contains DNA; however, the DNA is not encapsulated
within a nucleus. Simple cell, less complex, does not have membrane-bound organelles.
Eukaryote – A cell that contains a true nucleus. The cell contains DNA within a nucleus. Larger cell, more complex, has
membrane-bound organelles.
Heterotroph – used to explain an organism that consumes its energy. These organisms cannot make their own food and
do not have organelles to do so.
Autotroph – An organism that synthesizes its energy within the cell itself. The organism can do this by using sunlight or
chemicals. Both are considered inorganic. Examples: Photoautotroph or Chemoautotroph
Cell Wall – An extra layer that surrounds the Cell Membrane. Can be composed of Cellulose (a carbohydrate found in
plant cell walls) or Chitin (a carbohydrate found in Fungal Cell Walls). Bacterial Cell Walls can also have different layers
as well.
Flagella – a long whip-like tail attached to a cell that is used for mobility.
Cilia – many tiny little hairs that surround the cell and are also used for mobility.
Goodland/Bishop
CELLULAR RESPIRATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS- HANDOUT
*Energy, ATP and Cellular Respiration: Energy is the ability to do work (muscle contraction). Energy can
change from one form to another, but is not created or destroyed. Chemical energy stored in ATP can be
converted to muscle contraction. Our bodies constantly use chemical energy for necessary cellular processes.
*ALL organisms use a 2-step process to provide the energy needed for most of their biological processes:
1) Chemical energy from organic molecules like glucose is used to produce ATP in a process called cellular
respiration
2) ATP provides energy for most biological processes.
The process of Cellular Respiration
takes place in the mitochondria!!
*Cellular respiration is the process that transfers some of the chemical energy in glucose or another organic
molecule to chemical energy in ATP, so energy is available in a form that is useful for biological processes.
Cellular Respiration Equations = C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
Note that not all of the energy released from glucose by cellular respiration is captured in ATP: some of the
energy is converted to heat.
*To use energy from food: Cellular respiration transfers energy in organic molecules such as glucose to
energy in ATP. Then, ATP is used to provide energy for cellular processes.
*Fermentation-produces energy from food molecules by producing ATP in the absence of oxygen. It is said
to be anaerobic.
 The 2 main types of fermentation are alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid fermentation. Alcoholic
fermentation produces carbon dioxide gas and is the reason bread dough rises. Lactic acid
fermentation can cause muscle soreness due to lactic acid build-up in muscle
Darland/Spaniel
Photosynthesis equation = 6CO2 + 6H2O  6O2 + C6H12O
*Photosynthesis begins with light reactions which convert the energy in sunlight to chemical energy in ATP
and NADPH. In the 2nd stage of photosynthesis, known as the Calvin Cycle, ATP and NADPH provide the
energy and H needed to convert CO2 to a 3-carbon molecule which is converted to glucose. Glucose can also
be used to produce starch (a storage molecule) and cellulose (a major structural molecule in plants).
The process of Photosynthesis takes place
in the chloroplast!!
Relating Photosynthesis and Cellular respiration: Plants must also carry out cellular respiration to
provide ATP for cellular processes.
 Notice that the equation for photosynthesis and the equation for cellular respiration are FLIPPED!
 The reactants become the products and the products become the reactants.
Heterotrophs use the process of Cellular Respiration to obtain the energy needed stored in glucose.
Autotrophs use the process of Photosynthesis to obtain their energy stored in glucose by making glucose.
Darland/Spaniel
(Punnett Squares) Monohybrid/Dihybrid crosses
Carpenter/Fuller
Steps for setting up a Punnett Square
1. Make a Key for trait(s) observed
2. Determine Genotypes of each parent
3. Determine possible gametes of each parent
4. Set up offspring in punnett square
5. Analyze your results
Example: A green pea plant (GG) is being crossed with a green pea plant (Gg), yellow is the recessive color.
Step 1
Step 2
Key:
Genotypes:
G= green
Parent #1 Gg
ParentG#2 gametes
G
Step 4
Step 3
g= yellow
Parent #2 GG
Step 3
GG
GG
Gg
Gg
Analysis of results Step 5
G
Parent #1 gametes
g
Genotype =
2 GG: 2 Gg ; 0 gg
Phenotype = 4 Green pea plants: 0 yellow pea plants
DNA Structure
In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick established the structure of DNA (Nucleic Acid). The structure is a
double helix, which is like a twisted ladder. The sides of the ladder are made of alternating sugar and
phosphate molecules. The sugar is deoxyribose. The rungs of the ladder are pairs of 4 types of nitrogen
bases. Two of the bases are purines - adenine and guanine. The pyrimidines are thymine and cytosine. The
bases are known by their coded letters A, G, T, C. These bases always bond in a certain way. Adenine will
only bond to thymine. Guanine will only bond with cytosine. This is known as the Base-Pair Rule. The bases
can occur in any order along a strand of DNA. The order of these bases is the code that contains the
instructions. For instance ATGCACATA would code for a different gene than AATTACGGA. A strand of
DNA contains millions of bases. (For simplicity, the image only contains a few.) Note that the bases attach to
the sides of the ladder at the sugars and not the phosphate. The combination of a single base, a deoxyribose
sugar, and a phosphate make up a nucleotide. DNA is actually a molecule or repeating nucleotides. Examine
the nucleotides closer. Two of the bases are purines - adenine and guanine. The pyrimidines are thymine and
cytosine. Note that the pyrimidines are single ringed and the purines are double ringed. The two sides of the
DNA ladder are held together loosely by hydrogen bonds.
Karyotypes:
A karyotype is an organized profile of a person's chromosomes. In a karyotype, chromosomes are arranged
and numbered by size, from largest to smallest. This arrangement helps scientists quickly identify
chromosomal alterations that may result in a genetic disorder.
To make a karyotype, scientists take a picture of someone's chromosomes, cut them out and match them up
using size, banding pattern and centromere position as guides.
Why It Is Done
Karyotyping is done to:






Determine whether the chromosomes of an adult have an abnormality that can be
passed on to a child.
Determine whether a chromosome defect is preventing a woman from becoming
pregnant or causing miscarriages.
Determine whether a chromosome defect is present in a fetus. Karyotyping also may
be done to determine whether chromosomal problems may have caused a fetus to
be stillborn.
Determine the cause of a baby's birth defects or disability.
Help determine the appropriate treatment for some types of cancer.
Identify the sex of a person by determining the presence of the Y chromosome. This
may be done when a newborn's sex is not clear.
Carpenter/Fuller
Karyotype Station:
1. What is a karyotype?
2. List at least 2 types of information karyotypes provide.
3. How many chromosomes do humans have?
4. Look at the karyotype below. What gender is revealed?
5. Is the karyotype “normal” or “abnormal” in the picture below? Describe how you can tell.
6.
Look at the karyotype below. Is the karyotype “normal” or “abnormal” in the picture below? Describe how you
can tell.
7. What is the gender of the karyotype below?
Carpenter/Fuller
DNA Station:
1. What are the sides of the DNA ladder made of?
2. What is the monomer for DNA?
3. What three parts make up a single nucleotide?
4. What are the 4 Nitrogenous bases that make up the rungs of the DNA ladder?
5. What sugar is found in DNA?
6. How do the bases bond together? A bonds with _____ , G bonds with _________ and Vice - Versa.
7. What is the shape of DNA?
Genetic Crosses Station:
1.
What information does a genetic cross provide?
2. Define:
a. Homozygousb. Heterozygousc. Recessived. Dominant-
3. What is the answer to the Genetic Problem #1? List the Genotype(s), Phenotype(s), and percentages.
4. What is the answer to the Genetic Problem #2? List the Genotype(s), Phenotype(s), and percentages.
5. What is the answer to the Genetic Problem #3? List the Genotype(s), Phenotype(s), and percentages.