 The Grand Tour: Sons of aristocrats completed their education with a tour of Europe’s major cities (Paris, Rome, Venice, Florence)
 Still education in the Latin classics & use of French as the international language
 Poverty --- problem in not just the cities but in countryside
 Before: assisting was a Christian duty Now: charity encouraged their idleness and led to vice & crime
 Culture
 High Culture --Literary and artistic world of educated (theologians,
scientists, philosophers, intellectuals, poets, dramatists) & wealthy ruling class
 Popular Culture --- written & unwritten lore of the masses most passed down orally
 18 th century, expansion of reading & publishing
 Magazines -- England important center
 Newspapers 1 st 1702 in London
 Education
 European schools perpetuated the class hierarchy rather than creating avenues for social mobility
 Education should function to keep people in their own social class
 Complaints led to some new schools offering modern language, geography, job opportunities like bookkeeping
 Crime & Punishment
 Except in England: judicial torture important means of obtaining
evidence
 Punishments: cruel & spectacular included public executions
 Cesare Beccaria 1738-1794 On Crimes and Punishments 1764
 Imprisonment, deprivation of freedom more lasting impression
 New type of prison: cells, subjected to discipline and regular work to rehabilitate them
 Carnival
 Celebrated in Spain, Italy, France, Germany, Austria
 Spectacular form of festival: ate, drank, celebrated great indulgence
 Last from Christmas to lent

 Religion
 Pietism --- teachings of Count Nikolaus von Zinzendorf 1700-1760
 Also called Moravian Brethren
 Personal experiences of God in one’s life that constituted true religious experience: more personal
 John Wesley 1703-1791 Anglican minister
 Lower religion to level of the people
 Followers separated from Anglican church after his death: Methodist
 Religious Toleration: ‘battle cry of philosophers
 Joseph II of Austria Toleration patent 1781
 Recognized Catholic as public practice,
 Granted Lutherans, Calvinists, & Greek Orthodox to worship privately
 Jews
 Restricted: forbidden to own land, hold many jobs, forced to pay burdensome special taxes (except in Poland)
 Pogroms: Jewish communities (ghetto) looted & people massacred
 Some areas favored assimilation of Jews into the mainstream but by conversion as basic solution
 Music
 Italians 1 st followed by Germans, Austrians, English
 Musicians depended on a patron-prince or aristocrat
 Italy & Germany musical leaders due to princes, archbishops, & bishops
 Johann Sebastian Bach 1685-1750
 Organist & music director at German courts
 Task, to make “well-ordered music in the honor of God”
 George Frederick Handel 1685-1759
 Secular in his temperament but had stormy international career
 Wrote music for large public audience
 Best work: religious “Messiah”
 Franz Joseph Haydn 1732-1809
 Musical director for Hungarian princes
 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 1756-1791
 1 st concert at age 6, 1 st opera written at age 12
 Could never find a patron, died as debt ridden pauper at 35
 Novels
 Attractive to women readers & writers
 Samuel Richardson 1689-1761 printer by trade
 1 st novel Pamela: or Virtue Rewarded
 Servant girl’s resistance to numerous seduction attempts by her master.
Reads her letters, finds her having a good mind as well as body. Marries her: virtue rewarded
 Henry Fielding 1707-1754
 novels about people without scruples who survived by their wits
 History of Tom Jones, a Foundling
 About adventures of a scoundrel: scenes of England from hovels in
London to country houses of aristocracy

 Writing history
 Philosophes, historians creating revolution in history: eliminate role of
God in history (Greek historian: Thucydides)
 Part of work still social, economic, intellectual, cultural, developments, but also to entertain, goal to help civilize their age, history played a role in this
 Age of Louis XIV, by Voltaire 1751 initiated idea of social history
 Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon 1776-1788 gave many causes, but major reason was growth of Christianity