What’s in a Grave: A Preliminary Analysis of Material
Culture from the Milwaukee County Institution Grounds
Cemetery
Draft Reading Version
PLEASE DO NOT CITE WITHOUT PERMISSION OF THE AUTHOR
Eric E. Burant
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
Paper presented in Symposium: People that no one had use for, had
nothing to give to, no place to offer: The Milwaukee County Institution
Grounds Poor Farm Cemetery at the 80nd Annual Society for American
Archaeology Meeting, San Francisco, California, April 15-19, 2015.
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(Slide 1) This paper presents the results of a preliminary analysis of the material
culture assemblage produced as a result of 2013 recovery operations at Cemetery 2
of the four identified cemetery locations on the Milwaukee County grounds in
Wauwatosa Wisconsin (Slide 2). This historic cemetery was in use from 1882 to
1925 and interred Milwaukee County’s indigent. (Slide 3)The 2013 cemetery
excavations recovered 632 individual adult and juvenile burial locations. Of the 632
burial locations, 363 (57%) of the burials contained material remains, conversely
269 (43%) did not contain any material culture.
All of the material culture recovered was subject to a written standard operating
procedure designed to provide appropriate stabilization, inventory, accessioning
and analysis. The focus of this paper emphasizes the cultural material remains
recovered from within the burial container, however, a brief description of the
specialized technique of electrolysis as designed and used for this project is
provided. Pending a final disposition decision, all material culture is curated in
glassine, or plastic bags. Materials are curated temporarily in the UWM
Archaeological Research Laboratory collections facility.
(Slide 4)Electrolysis, or electrolytic reduction, of metal artifacts was accomplished
by the following method. A tank was filled with a 2% sodium carbonate solution.
The artifact was suspended from an insulated copper wire attached securely to an
alligator clip. (Slide 5)The object was surrounded by four steel anodes, connected
by a separate insulated copper wire, approximately 10cm apart. The negatively
charged battery terminal connector was connected to the cathode; while the
positive charge was connected to the insulated copper wire linking each anode. A
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DSR Pro-series 12 volt battery charger, set to a 2 ampere, was used to supply the
electrical current. The power was supplied by a GFCI outlet, to protect all of the
equipment. Each artifact was left to bathe in the system for up to 8 hours. Objects
with particularly high corrosion levels were allowed to soak for up to 24 hours.
(Slide 6)Successful cleaning revealed detail on artifacts, otherwise, not present on
the corroded exterior. Green corrosion typical of copper alloys was present on
many rings, coins, religious medallions, and crucifixes (Lille, Mack 2013). Thus far,
no testing was done to distinguish copper from brass. (Slide 7)The primary use of
electrolysis on the collection was on the larger, ferrous based, hardware category of
coffin handles. Handles recovered from the Milwaukee County Institution Cemetery
can be grouped into ten separate, identifiable, types. (Slide 8) These ten types can
be defined by a series of characteristics including: shape and size of the plate; shape
and size of the swing or pull bar; manufacturing stamp; number of screw holes;
decoration; the metal and metal treatment from which the handle was
manufactured. Due to the higher levels of corrosion, coffin handles were treated by
electrolysis for longer periods of time and, thus far, only 50% of the total 1134 coffin
handles recovered have been treated.
(Slide 9)All non coffin-related material culture recovered during the 2013
excavations is characterized in one of two ways; grave goods and grave inclusions.
Grave goods refer to cultural items directly associated with an individual that can be
seen as some manifestation of the individuality of the deceased. Alternatively, grave
inclusions indirectly relate to the interred, but are associated with some aspect of
the County Grounds complex. Materials characterized as grave goods include
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clothing and personal items, while, grave inclusions include medical and hospital
related artifacts and miscellaneous items.
Clothing
The category of clothing includes fasteners, buttons, fabric, footwear, and belts. A
total of 3441 total associated clothing artifacts were produced by 274 of burial
locations.
Fasteners (Slide 10)
The fasteners category includes buckles (unassociated with belts), buttons, snaps,
hook and eyes sets, sock garters, suspenders, straight pins and toggles. A total of
2745 whole and fragmented fasteners were recovered from 229 burial locations.
Safety pins will be discussed separately.
Buttons (Slide 11)
A total of 292 buttons were recovered from 93 burial locations. Distributions are as
follows: 38 subadult burials, 35 male burials, eight mixed burials, six female
burials, and six indeterminate sex burials. On average, subadult burials were most
likely found to contain buttons. The majority of recovered buttons were identified
as Prosser buttons. 155 Prosser buttons were recovered from 57 burial locations.
Prosser buttons were recovered from 14 male burials, four female burials, four
indeterminate sex burials, 3 mixed burials, and 32 subadult burials. Other
recovered types of common materials for button manufacture include; bone, shell,
wood, rubber, leather, glass, metal, and plastic (Bakelite).
Safety Pins (Slide 12)
2807 whole and safety pin fragments were recovered from 165 burial locations
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Safety pins are observed in 128 subadult burials and in 37 adult burials. In subadult
burials safety pins were usually accompanied by fabric. In most cases, this fabric is
interpreted as a diaper. When safety pins and fabric were recovered together they
were most commonly observed covering the pelvis or directly adjacent to the
innominate.
Fabric (Slide 13)
Fabric recovered from the Milwaukee County Grounds is represented by clothing
apparel, burial shrouds, or diapers. Fabric was recovered from 131 burial locations.
(Slide 14)A total of 727 identified articles of clothing or fabric fragments were
collected. Clothing is most notably accounted for interments related to unidentified
or unclaimed deceased from the coroner’s office whose clothing was not removed as
part of a postmortem investigation. Identified garments include; coats, gloves, pants,
shirts, and vests.
(Slide 15)Burials shrouds are associated individuals who died as residents of one of
the County institutions. The body of the deceased would have been wrapped in
shroud (without clothing) and the fabric would presumably be fastened by pins. The
Rules and Regulations for the County Farm and Alms House (1894) supports the
evidence for interment with burial shrouds, the rule states
“Rule 2: The clothing and personal effects of inmates shall,
in the discretion of the superintendent, be taken charge of
by him or his assistants, properly cleansed, repaired,
checked, and put away, and returned to the owner or his or
her relatives on death, or on leaving the institution.”
Burial shrouds are manufactured of tightly woven, probably, machine-made linen.
Given preservation limitations, most shrouds were recovered from the torso. 36
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fragmentary burial shrouds were recovered from 36 burial locations.
(Slide 16)Diapers are solely observed in juvenile burials. Diapers were
likely constructed from a cotton cloth. The uniformity of the weave suggests a
machine manufacture. Again, diapers were most commonly observed covering the
pelvis or directly adjacent to the innominate. Usually fabric interpreted as a diaper
was accompanied by safety pins or safety pin fragments.
Footwear (Slide 17)
Footwear includes all shoes, boots, and related hardware. Most footwear
was constructed of leather and composite materials. The leather was stitched
together, and the sole was tacked using ferrous shoe tacks. 14 men’s shoes were
recovered from seven burial locations. Three women’s shoes were recovered from
two burial locations. Two children’s shoes were recovered from two burial
locations. A total of 255 whole shoe and footwear fragments were recovered from
16 burial locations.
Belts (Slide 18)
Belts are an artifact class that is comprised of two characterizing parts, the buckle
and the strap. All belt straps were manufactured out of leather. Buckles were
constructed of metal and were, usually, attached to a whole or fragmented strap. 7
whole belt or belt fragments were recovered from 6 burial locations.
Personal Items (Slide 19)
Personal items are composed of all items regarding the jewelry, ornamental
decorations, and other personal effects. These ornamentations are reflected by
personal belongings, self-identifying, and heir loomed artifacts. The presence, of
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which, allude to the value of individuality in burial. Personal items were
categorized as adornment, utilitarian items, pocket tools, medical and health items,
indulgences, coins, and ritual items. A total of 199 total associated clothing artifacts
were produced by 80 of burial locations.
Adornment (Slide 20)
Adornment related artifacts were recovered from 21 burial locations. A total
of 81 whole or fragmented adornment items were collected. This subsequent
category contains the most recognizable and divisible gender specific artifacts.
Adornment items recovered include beads (not associated with rosaries), bows,
chains or links, cuff links, earrings, hair clips, rings, and tie chains.
Utilitarian (Slide 21)
54 whole or fragmented utilitarian items were recovered from 28 burial
locations. Utilitarian items are described a functional artifacts designated for use at
home, work, or for other practical purposes. Utilitarian items recovered include a
bowl, vases, bottles, a crock, a clothespin, a fork, grommets, a garden rake, a tire
iron, and unidentified porcelain fragments.
Pocket Tools (Slide 22)
A total of 15 whole and fragmented pocket tools were recovered from 14
burial locations these include; coin purse, pencils, zippo lighter, hardware
container, key, and unidentified pocket tools. Pocket tools are practical hand held
devices and are defined by functionality.
Medical and Health (Slide 23)
Medical and health items relate to personal devices used by the interred to
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provide treatment of illness and injuries. 17 medical and health items were
recovered from 12 burial locations and include birth control devices, dental
bridges, dental crowns, dentures, and tonic bottles.
Indulgences (Slide 24)
A total of 16 indulgence related items were recovered from 12 burial
locations. Artifacts recovered include beverage bottles, drink ware, bottle stoppers,
smoking pipes, and perfume bottles.
Ritual (Slide 25)
Ritual artifacts were recovered from 11 burial locations. Ritual items
consisted of prayer books, crosses and crucifixes, rosaries, pendants, and other
religious grave goods. The only religious grave goods recovered reflected Catholic
devotional practices.
Medical and Hospital(Slide 26)
The category of Medical and Hospital is composed of all items relating to one
or more of the various medical institutions on the Milwaukee County grounds or the
teaching of anatomy at local medical schools. These artifacts include Autopsy Tools,
Research Items, and Medical Waste. Medical and hospital items were recovered
from 114 burial locations. A total of 1805 whole or fragmented medical and hospital
items were collected.
Autopsy Tools (Slide 27)
6 whole or fragmented autopsy tools were recovered from 6 burial locations.
Artifacts include a single pair of fragmented tweezers recovered from a single adult
burial, and five scalpel blade holders recovered from burials suggestive of cadaver
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use displaying osteological evidence for autopsy or dissection.
Medical Waste (Slide 28)
A total of 1684 whole or fragmented medical waste items were recovered
from 105 burial locations. Medical waste includes bandages, cut wood fragments,
electrical insulators, flat glass, jars, bottles, light bulbs, newspaper, plaster, rubber
items, tiling, tubing, and medical apparatus materials. Bandages were used as a
protective treatment for injuries or for use on cadaver preservation. A medical
account from Anatomical Material – Its Collection and Its Preservation states:
It was also found that the hands, feet and face dried easily in
the dissecting-room, and especially in cold-storage, and to
prevent this the body was carefully wrapped immediately
after the embalming process was ended. First the hands, feet
and face were smeared with vaseline and wrapped with
bandages of tissue paper which is ordered from the mills in
rolls 5 inches wide and 3 inches in diameter. Then these
bandages and the rest of the body were smeared with
Vaseline and the whole carefully wrapped with bandages of
cheesecloth about a foot wide. It is well to wrap the legs and
arms separately in order that they may be exposed easily for
dissection, the rest of the body remaining wrapped, for the
covering is an additional protection in the dissecting-room.
Such bodies may be retained in cold-storage indefinitely
without drying, although the thorax and abdomen gradually
lose much of their moisture (Mall 1905:40).
The evidence for bandage use translates into evidence recovered at the County
Grounds. Some mixed burials contain amputated limbs wrapped in fabric. 23
fragmentary fabric bandages were recovered from 20 adult burial locations.
Additionally bottles embossed with "CHESEBROUGH MFG CO VASELINE" on the
vessel were recovered.
Research Items (Slide 29)
Research items were recovered from 23 burial locations. Research items
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encompass a variety of laboratory equipment associated with the medical field and
hospital contexts. A total of 115 whole or fragmented research items were
recovered and include microscope slides, Petri dishes, pipettes, specimen jar, supply
bottle, and test tubes.
Conclusion (Slide 30)
Supported by demographic data, the archaeological analysis of grave goods
recovered from the 1991 and 1992 Milwaukee County Poor Farm Cemetery
excavations, the various roads leading to pauperism in late nineteenth and early
twentieth century Milwaukee include; mental or physical illness, accident, suicide,
murder , financially poor relatives or lack of relatives. Richards (1997) argued the
definition of three distinct classes of poor: 1) those who died at one of the various
county institutions; 2) those unidentified at the time of their burial (often victims of
accidents, homicides, or suicides), and 3) those who had relatives involved in the
burial but without financial means to arrange for burial elsewhere. This preliminary
analysis of artifacts, along with the historical and archaeological evidence presented
in the symposium, distinguishes commonalities between material culture and
respective burial class. Patterning observed in the material culture and osteological
evidence has identified another category of individuals, that of medical cadavers.
Redefining burial categories will allow a more comprehensive understanding of the
observed variability of interments at Milwaukee County Institution Grounds
Cemetery.
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