Running head: INTERVENTIONS
A Historical Perspective on Intervention Services Provided by School Psychologists
Vicki Pederson
University of Calgary
EDPS 635: Summer 2013
Learning Task 3
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A Historical Perspective on Intervention Services Provided by School Psychologists
School psychology is a discipline that has changed and evolved over the past several
decades. The role of a school psychologist has been shaped throughout history, and continues to
transform and evolve in addition to keeping to traditional roles (Fagan & Wise, 2007). School
psychologists provide a variety of services within schools, clinics, and other agencies. These
services include psycho-educational assessment, interventions, consultation, and research and
evaluation. Of these services, Fagan and Wise (2007) reported several studies that indicated
between 13% - 26% of a psychologist’s time is spent on providing interventions. Although it is
difficult to place a generic definition on the term “intervention”, Kratochwill et al. (2009)
considered an intervention to be “the systematic use of a technique, program or practice designed
to improve learning or behavior in specific areas of student need” (p.502). This paper will use
this definition to guide its examination of how school psychologists have provided interventions
throughout history and how this role looks today. Additionally, this paper will analyze the
medical, ecological, and problem-solving models of providing interventions, how response-tointervention (RTI) is influencing the role a psychologist plays in terms of providing
interventions, as well as examine the research aspect of evidence-based interventions.
Interventions
Recommending and developing interventions has long since been a service provided by
school psychologists. A vast amount of articles have been published throughout the decades that
have suggested how interventions should look and be used. In 1967, Catterall suggested a fourpart model of intervention activities that categorized interventions according to an indirect
approach, direct approach, the environment, or the student (Fagan & Wise, 2007). In 1987,
Maher and Zins presented an approach based on six domains of intervention: cognitive
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development, affective functioning, socialization, academic achievement, physical fitness, and
vocational preparation (Fagan & Wise, 2007). In 1985, Witt and Elliot provided guidelines to use
when considering interventions, including examining the effectiveness and acceptability of the
intervention (Fagan & Wise, 2007). More recently, Tilly III (2007) summarized the importance
of using multicomponent interventions to ensure the best possible chance of success. While not
all components may work for every child, all components should be considered thoughtfully
when planning interventions. These intervention components include antecedent interventions,
alternative skills instruction, instructional consequent strategies, reduction-oriented consequent
strategies, long-term prevention strategies, and support for team members (Tilly III, 2007).
Reviewing these intervention models and guidelines demonstrate an evolution and progression of
the service a school psychologist provides. Interventions are not simply ideas that are written
into a report, but are an integral part of a school psychologist’s services that require much time
and scientific thought. Present-day intervention models and guidelines, discussed later in this
paper, include RTI and evidence-based interventions.
Traditional Models
It was with the era of social reform in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that the origins
of school psychological services can be traced (Fagan & Wise, 2007). Compulsory schooling,
which was enacted between 1870 to 1930, was among the most influential in the emergence of
psychological services (Fagan & Wise, 2007). More professionals were needed to assist with
educational programming for all children, especially for children that previously had not been
likely to attend school. Prior to World War II, while some psychologists provided intervention
and consultation, interventions were a rare aspect of many psychologists’ roles, both in or out of
the school setting (Fagan & Wise, 2007). With the baby boom of post-World War II, education
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began to grow rapidly and this reflected a greater need for psychological services within the
schools, including more intervention services. More recently, the thoroughbred years (1970present) have brought many changes to a school psychologist’s role, including intervention
services, as a result of changing social influences and demands (Fagan & Wise, 2007).
Refer-Test-Place
Traditionally, following the post-World War II era, the role of the school psychologist
has followed a predictable pattern. To address academic and behavioural problems, schools
followed a 3-step process that is often referred to as the “refer-test-place” approach (Gresham,
2007). Following assessment, the school psychologist would then meet with other professionals
involved with the child to come up with remedial techniques aimed at helping the child (Fagan &
Wise, 2007). Therefore, a school psychologist’s role was limited to performing some form of
assessment (e.g. cognitive, academic, social/emotional, curriculum-based, etc.) from a referral
and suggesting interventions based on the assessment. The interventions would be carried out by
other personnel, such as teachers, teaching assistants, or parents. Throughout history, many have
advocated for a change in the assessment-focused role. Bradley-Johnson and Dean (2000)
referenced many historical calls to move beyond the assessment role including the Thayer
Conference in 1954, the Spring Hill Symposium in 1980, and various journal articles throughout
the 1980s and 1990s. These span nearly 60 years and all cite similar ideas. These ideas are that
the role of the school psychologist should include a greater emphasis on indirect services, such as
prevention strategies, and greater involvement in the development and evaluation of
interventions (Bradley-Johnson & Dean, 2000).
Medical Model
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Within the board historical model of intervention and services provided, the medical
model is one that has traditionally been used by not only school psychologists, but other
professionals such as therapists and medical doctors. Mental health and school psychology have
parallel histories of discontent. Prior to World War II, there was a global interest in the happiness
of the general public, which produced positive psychological writings such as studies of
giftedness or effective parenting (Clonan, Chafouleas, McDougal, & Riley-Tillman, 2004).
However, after World War II, the trend became one of treating mental illness and researching
pathology. This trend is that of a medical or disease model, in which problems are
conceptualized as being innate within the individual, and the role of the professional (e.g. school
psychologist, therapist, doctor, etc.) was to treat the illness or problem and to maximize the
individual’s functioning and adjustment (Tilly III, 2007). Thus, this model was reactive, waiting
for the problem to occur and then responding with some form of intervention. It was also
individually-based, focusing on the one individual as opposed to populations. Gutkin (2009)
argued that the medical model, as it is applied in school psychology, particularly when dealing
with mental health concerns, is one that has long outlived its usefulness. Within the medical
model, interventions focus on the individual as though it is a medical disease isolated from
context, when in fact mental disorders are context-dependant by nature and interventions need to
be holistic to reflect this (Gutkin, 2009). This current trend of thought had led to shifting ideas
about how school psychologists can be most effective in schools, including the role they play in
terms of intervention services.
Current Models
The school psychology literature in the 1970s and 1980s was filled with ideas of a
revolution in service delivery that moved away from the “refer-test-place” model toward a more
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positive, intervention and consultation focused approach (Clonan et al., 2004). This would lead
to a model that, as consultants, school psychologists would be able to provide earlier and more
effective services to more people, and to work with school personnel on interventions to help
reduce risk and prevent problems from occurring (Clonan et al., 2004). Despite this widespread
attention within the literature, such changes in service delivery models have been slow to occur.
When examining the current role a school psychologist plays in terms of intervention, the role is
not dramatically different from the past. In fact, Fagan and Wise (2007) stated that the traditional
model and emerging model of implementing interventions are basically the same. As mentioned
previously in the paper, much of a school psychologist’s time is spent on formal assessment.
However, many school psychologists currently advocate for a pre-referral process which allows
them to meet with a school team to plan strategies or interventions for a student or group of
students prior to formal comprehensive evaluation (Fagan & Wise, 2007). This concept is one
that is reflected within the ecological, problem-solving, and RTI models for intervention.
Ecological Model
In contrast to the medical model of providing intervention, the ecological model is one
that is emerging within the field of school psychology. Gutkin (2012) argued that by attributing
educational difficulties and mental health problems as internal states of disease and pathology,
the medical model is actually an impediment to addressing these problems effectively. Gutkin
(2012) reasoned that the medical model is ineffective because it services individuals rather than
populations, and it focuses on remediation rather than prevention and early intervention.
Conversely, an ecological model is one that takes a holistic approach, by focusing on prevention
and intervention and the complex interactions between the individual and the environment
(Gutkin, 2009). Within the ecological model, intervention strategies concentrate heavily on both
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the environment to be modified and the behaviour of the adults who control those environments
(e.g. teachers, parents) (Gutkin, 2012). In other words, the ecological model determines what
factors within the environment need to be modified to alleviate student problems rather than
relying on fixing the individual. Gutkin (2009) suggested that an ecological model significantly
increases the array of possible intervention strategies that a school psychologist might
recommend. For example, the intervention may be student centered (e.g. reading remediation),
classroom centered (e.g. teacher training), school centered (e.g. model of delivery), peer group
centered, or home centered. While an ecological model is one that is emerging in school
psychology, it is not the only model that exists in terms of a providing services such as
interventions.
Problem-Solving Model
According to the Blueprint III model of school psychology, school psychologists should
possess the ability to use problem-solving to evaluate and apply appropriate interventions at not
only an individual level but a systems level as well (Ysseldyke et al., 2006). As previously
discussed within this paper, school psychologists have advocated for a shift away from the
“refer-test-place” model to one that is more focused on involvement in services. Not only does
the ecological model propose this type of shift, but the problem-solving model does so as well.
While the ecological model’s focus is on mental health, the problem-solving model takes a more
broad vision of the role of school psychologists. Ervin, Peacock, and Merrell (2010) argued that
the problem-solving model provides an excellent framework for the provision of indirect services
provided by school psychologists. The problem solving method addresses a series of questions:
(a) what is the problem? (b) why is the problem occurring? (c) what can be done about the
problem?, and (d) did the intervention work? (Ervin, Peacock, & Merrell, 2010). When analyzing
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the first two questions, the school psychologist is determining which interventions would be
most effective and appropriate to answer the third question. It is in answering the third question
that a school psychologist is involved in an intervention plan for the child which includes what
the intervention should look like, the resources and materials needed, the roles and
responsibilities for those involved, the timeframe required, and how the intervention will be
monitored. Therefore, the problem-solving model is one that places a great amount of
importance on the role of a school psychologist in the intervention process. The problem-solving
model is one that can easily be implemented with a tiered systems model such as RTI.
Response-to-Intervention Model
Theoretically, RTI is grounded on an ecological model that is based on the assertion that
child outcomes are influenced by reciprocal interactions between the students and the
environment (Powers, Hagan, & Busse, 2008). RTI is described as a multi-level prevention
system that includes a combination of high quality, responsive instruction, assessment, and
evidence-based intervention (Gresham, 2007). RTI is typically a 3-tiered system that provides a
variety of interventions to students: (a) tier 1 is composed of high level, research-based
instruction that should support approximately 80% of the school population; (b) tier 2 is more
specialized instruction that provides assistance for approximately 15% of students whose
performance is behind despite tier 1 instruction; and (c) tier 3 is composed of comprehensive,
intensive intervention for about 5% of the school population who are still struggling despite the
previous two tiers of interventions. The movement towards an RTI model of service delivery
represents shift away from the traditional “refer-test-place” model (Powers, Hagan, & Busse,
2008). Therefore, a school psychologist’s role must move away from providing comprehensive
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psychometric assessments to planning and supporting interventions and consultation services
within the tiered instructional model.
Generally, there are two assumptions that drive the selection and implementation of
assessment and intervention procedures with an RTI model: (a) intervention represents
measurable hypotheses that are evaluated for each student, and (b) interventions focus on
alterable variables that are evidence-based to improve student outcomes (Powers, Hagan, &
Busse, 2008). Therefore, a school psychologist’s role is influenced by these assumptions. At the
various levels, a school psychologist may provide intervention in terms of consulting with a
teacher on instructional effectiveness, collect and interpret progress monitoring data to determine
intervention effectiveness, and design and support systematic, targeted interventions (Powers,
Hagan, & Busse, 2008). Within an RTI model, interventions will look different at each level.
Within tier 1, a large proportion of students are receiving and achieving expectations from
effective core curriculum. The most important forms of intervention at this level include
instructional match and universal screening. Instructional match refers to the process of matching
the curriculum and instruction provided to the needs of the students (Tilly III, 2007). Universal
screenings identify which students are potentially in need of educational interventions beyond
the general core instruction (Tilly III, 2007). While tier 1 is typically followed through by
teachers, school psychologists should be part of the team to help assist with the process. Within
tier 2, the student receives the core instruction plus supplemental instruction. Supplemental
instruction can include additional time or opportunities or strategically planned additional
instruction. Within tier 3, the student receives intensive instruction. Both tier 2 and tier 3 is
where a school psychologist will be most involved in the intervention planning process. This is
when decisions about interventions will be made and progress-monitoring will occur. A school
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psychologist must make important decisions regarding interventions, and these interventions
should be supported by research.
Evidence-Based Interventions
There has been a trend in society that has seen public policies reflect an enhanced
concern towards the accountability and efficiency among professionals with specialized
knowledge which includes school psychologists (Kratochwill et al., 2007). This trend has
sparked the movement known as evidence-based practice, which is the process of creating and
applying research-based knowledge to practice. In fact, Yesseldyke et al. (2006) argued that the
field of school psychology has been a leader in the evidence-based practice movement. Within
evidence-based practice are evidence-based interventions, which is the term commonly used in
school psychology to refer to the interventions or programs that meet criteria based on
experimental research support (Kratochwill et al., 2007). Typically, criteria will be based upon
the quality of the basic research, the quantity of the research, and the consistency of the findings.
With the movement toward evidence-based intervention, the field of school psychology is taking
a new direction. This presents the opportunity for school psychologists to move beyond
assessment and promote interventions for social, emotional, behavioural, and academic
development.
As its name implies, evidence-based interventions are intertwined with research. To
support and coordinate the advancement of scientific knowledge, a variety of organizations and
institutions have begun to grade the quality of evidence in support of various school-based
prevention and intervention programs (Kratochwill et al., 2007). However, numerous groups and
task forces use different criteria when examining research to designate an intervention as
“evidence-based”. For example, What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) limits the studies examined
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to specific methodologies, including between-group randomized trial and high-quality quasiexperimental studies (Kratochwill et al., 2007). Therefore, while some work has been done in
coding and reviewing studies in the publishing of evidence-based interventions, much work is
still to be done. This is especially important for a school psychologist to consider.
Recommendations are expected to be evidence-based, therefore, it is essential that a practising
school psychologist understand the research behind interventions and what criteria are used when
an intervention is being deemed “evidence-based”. In fact, within the Blueprint III model of
school psychology, data-based decision making and accountability are among one of the eight
domains in which a school psychologist is expected to demonstrate competence during training
and practice (Ysseldyke et al., 2006). Ysseldyke et al. (2006) stated that all assessment activities
should be related to prevention and intervention, and that school psychologists need to link
assessment with effective interventions.
Conclusion
There is little doubt that the role of a school psychologist has evolved throughout history.
The purpose of this paper was to examine the historical progression of this role in terms of how
school psychologists have been involved in providing interventions for children. Prior to World
War II, school psychologist played a small role in providing indirect services, such as
interventions, within the school setting. With the end of World War II and the beginning of the
baby boom era, psychological services began to develop as we now know them today. Typically,
the role of a school psychologist followed a predictable pattern, one that is often referred to as
the “refer-test-place” model. Based upon this model, a school psychologist would provide the
team with interventions to follow, yet not be directly involved within the team or delivery
service. While this model is still seen today, it can be argued that there is a shift taking place in
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the field of school psychology. Many school psychologists have advocated for a role that
encompasses a greater emphasis on indirect services, such as prevention strategies, and greater
involvement in the development and evaluation of interventions. It is within this shift that the
field of school psychology is developing ecological, problem-solving, and RTI models to provide
interventions with a more holistic approach. This shift is not taking place within isolation of the
field of school psychology, but also within the field of education as well. The school
psychologist has an important role to play in the educational system, especially within the area of
intervention services. Coinciding with the emerging models of service delivery is the movement
towards evidence-based practice and interventions. School psychologists are expected to be
leaders when it comes to recommending effective and appropriate interventions that will be most
beneficial in helping the child. These interventions are also expected to have been statistically
significant within a study or experiment. Indirect services, such as providing interventions, are a
role that school psychologists have carried out throughout history. Providing interventions is a
role that is continuously evolving and developing; therefore its history and the direction it is
taking in the future is essential for a school psychologist to understand in order to provide the
best possible service for having a positive impact on children.
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