Chemistry
for
Dummies
Table of Contents
Chapter 1…… Matter
 Classification
 Changes of State
 Chemical &Physical Change
 Density
Chapter 2…… Atomic Theory
 Atomic Structure
 Calculate Atomic Mass
 Calculate: Protons, Neutrons and Electrons
Chapter 3…… Electron Configuration and Lewis
Structure
 Electron Configuration
 Noble Gas Configuration
 Aufbau Principle
 Hund’s Rule and Pauli Exclusion Principle
 Orbital Notation Diagrams
 Lewis Dot
Chapter 4…… Periodic Table
 Naming and Grouping
 Periodic Trends
 Valence Electrons and Oxidation Numbers
Chapter 5…… Bonding
 Ionic, Covalent, and Metallic Bonding
 Naming Compounds
 Naming Acids
 Writing Formulas
 Lewis Diagrams and VSEPR
Chapter 6……Chemical Reactions
 Reaction Types
 Balancing Equations
 Net Ionic Equations
Chapter 7……Stoichiometry
o
Calculations
o
Gas Laws
Chapter 1: MATTER
Classification
http://www.cleanvideosearch.com/media/action/yt/watch?v=OpWFU
qPPtWE
To begin, matter is anything that takes up space and has mass.
Everything around us is made up of matter. Matter can only exist
in three states: Solid, liquid, gas (sometimes plasma). Solid matter
is made up of tightly packed particles. A solid has a definite shape
and volume. These particles are not free to move around.Liquid
matter is made of loose particles. It has a definite shape but no
definite volume. Particles can move about within a liquid, but they
are packed densely enough that volume is maintained.Gas matter is
composed of particles packed that are so loose they have neither a
definite shape nor a definitevolume. A gas can be compressed as
well.
Changes of State
In matter all the states can change from one to another. To
change the state of matter it may inquire extreme temperatures or
extreme pressures, but it can be done. Sometimes a substance
doesn't want to change states.
To get from one state of matter to another they have to go
through and phase transition. A phase transition is the transition
from one state of matter to another. Let’s start with a solid to a
liquid. To move from a solid to a liquid the phase change required
is freezing.(Ex. When you place an ice tray filled with water into a
freezer and the water freezes).
Next in phase changes there would be a change from liquid to a
gas. To move from a liquid to a gas that phase change would be
called: vaporization or evaporation. This process is called boiling.
(Ex. If you’re boiling eggs and the water starts to rapidly boil and
steam appears, the liquid is becoming a gas.)
Next in phase changes there would be a change from a liquid to a
solid. It may sound weird but if a product DOES NOT go through a
chemical change it can go back to its original state of matter. To
get a liquid back to a solid you would have to go through the
process freezing.
Chemical and Physical Changes
A chemical change is the creation of a new substance. When a
chemical change occurs it’s when a substance becomes a new
material. *A chemical change is irreversible.(Ex. Chemical change
happens when iron reacts with air; the iron is rusting.}
: Wood burning and becoming ash.
A physical change is when a substance is altered but not changed.
A physical change can be when the substance change form but not
its chemical composition. *A physical change is reversible. (Ex.
Adding salt to a glass of water and mixing them together. The salt
has dissolved; however if you drain the solution, you can get your
water and salt back to its original state.}
: Mixing salt with water.
I helped start you off with the first answer, now it’s your turn!
Answer the following question below to understand the difference
between Chemical and Physical Changes.
Changes
glass breaking
hammering wood together to build a house
a rusting bicycle
melting butter for popcorn
separating sand from gravel
spoiling food
mixing lemonade powder into water
mowing the lawn
corroding metal
bleaching your hair
fireworks exploding
squeezing oranges to make orange juice
frying an egg
pouring milk on your oatmeal
burning leaves
making salt water to gargle with
cream being whipped
burning toast
freezing chocolate covered bananas
melting ice cream
Answer
Physical
Physical
Chemical
Physical
Physical
Chemical
Physical
Physical
Chemical
Chemical
Chemical
Physical
Chemical
Physical
Chemical
Physical
Physical
Chemical
Physical
Physical
Density
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VfMDC4guXZg
Density is the amount of mass per volume. To understand density is
really simple. The formula for density is:
d = density
m = mass
v = volume
The density of gold is 19.3 grams per cubic centimeter. What is
the mass of a bar of gold in kilograms that measures 6 inches x 4
inches x 2 inches?
Chapter 2: Atomic Theory
Atomic Theory
In chemistry atomic theory is matter that is made up of units
called atoms. In atomic theory the atoms of each element are the
same. A scientist named John Dalton had a theory of matter. He
said that “Atoms are unable to be separated or destroyed.”He also
said that compounds are made by a combination of two or more
kinds atoms.
Atomic Structure
An atomic structure is the structure of an atom; it has a positive
charged proton in its nucleus. It also has a negative charged
electron in the nucleus. These electrons rotate around the nucleus.
Calculate Atomic Mass
When calculating the atomic mass, you must know what atomic mass
is. Atomic mass is the atomic weight of an atom or an isotope. To
find the atomic mass you must FIRST: Find the number of protons
which is the atomic number. SECOND: Find the number of neutrons
in the nucleus. THIRD: Add the proton and neutron.
Practice: Find the atomic mass of and Carbon(C) atom.
Calculations: >>>Protons= 6, Neutrons= 6 (6+6= 12)
*The picture above shows a Carbon atom.
Calculating Protons, Neutrons, Electrons
When looking for the protons, neutrons, and electrons of a specific
element.FIRST: Look at that specific element.SECOND: The
atomic number that would be the proton. Electrons would be the
same as the protons. To find the neurons you have to look at the
atomic mass.
**Calculating protons, neutrons, and electrons of Carbon. The
number above the symbol is the number of ELECTRONS and
PROTONS. To find the neutrons you subtract the *Atomic
number from the atomic Mass.* (12-6=5)*
PRACTICE TIME! Use your knowledge of atomic calculations to
complete to the following chart.
Name of
Element
Element
Symbol
Mass
Number
Atomic
Number
Protons
Boron
B
11
5
5
6
24
11
31
37
Sodium
Gallium
Y
89
Copper
Ytterbium
Neutrons Electrons
39
29
Tc
98
Pb
207
5
35
43
103
70
Chapter 3: Electron Configuration and Lewis
Electron Configuration and Lewis Structures
An electron configuration is when electrons are distributed around
a molecule or an atom. When describing electron configuration, you
would describe it as electrons moving around orbital, in a field
made by all other orbitals. When people hear of Lewis Structures
they will think of “Lewis Dot Structure”, and “Electron Dot
Structure”. Looking at any of those diagrams it would show how
atoms bond and share electrons.
** Two Fluorine atoms sharing atoms becoming a covalent bond.
Noble gas configuration is when someone calculates the noble
gas of an element. The same way someone finds the electron
configuration but only in a simpler way. Here are some easy
steps to help you get through configuration.
1.)
2.)
3.)
Pick a noble gas whose neutral atoms contain at least as
many electrons as an atom of the element you are given.
We will use neon.
"Subtract" its electron configuration from the electron
configuration of an atom of the element you are given. For
sodium, this gives us d^1.
Append the symbol of the gas, enclosed in square
brackets, to the left side of the electron configuration of
an atom of your element. So the noble gas configuration of
an atom of sodium is written as [Ne] d^1.
^^ This picture shows the noble gases’ configurations.
Aufbau Principle is the principle is used to determine the
electron configuration of a molecule, ion, or atom. The
Aufbau principle means electrons are being added to orbital’s
as protons are added to an atom. The Aufbau Principle says
that the electrons will fill the lowest energy levels before
they move on to another. Excited electrons (through giving
them energy) defy this principle, which is why the question
says for ground-state electrons.
** The picture below is a chart used to understand the levels
in “Aufbau Principle.”
Orbital notation diagrams are when doing an orbital diagram it
is simply the same as doing the Aufbau principle. It shows
orbital and half arrow representing each electron.
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ofWr-5gCjdU)
** The picture below is a chart that shows exactly what the
orbital notations are.
Hund’s Rule and the Pauli Exclusion Principle When filling sublevels
other than s, electrons are placed in individual orbitals before they
are paired up this would be the Hund’s rule. Hund’s rule also states
“electrons fill orbital’s starting at the lowest available energy state
before filling higher states (1s before 2s).” Pauli exclusion says
that an orbital hold 0, 1, or 2 electrons only and if there are two
electrons in the orbital, they must have opposite (paired) spins.
>> The box and arrow method make everything simpler. This
method can be used for ALL electron configurations; however it
makes the Hund’s Principle and Pauli Exclusion Principle easier.
Below you will see a couple of charts that will make everything
easier.
sublevel
# of electrons in
each sublevel
# of
orbitals
Names of each
orbital
s
2
1
s
p
6
3
pz px py
d
10
5
f
14
7
g
18
9
dz2 dxz dyz dxy dx22
y
fz3 fxz2 fyz2 fxyz fz(x22
2 2
2 2
y ) fx(x -3y ) fy(3x -y )
This sublevel configuration can be broken down into orbitals
(boxes).
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6........
Chapter 4: Periodic Table
Everything of the Periodic Table
If you ever heard of the periodic table, then you’ve may have
thought it is a huge chart with a lot of elements made by
some science egghead. Well the periodic table is a table of
the chemical elements arranged in order of atomic number,
usually in rows, so that elements with similar atomic structure
consists of name of groups, periodic trends, valence electrons,
and oxidation numbers. The periodic table had many creators.
It has about over 100 elements. These elements are a solid,
liquid or a gas. The basic information of the groups is that
there are at least 5 groups in the periodic table. They are
named Alkali metals, Alkaline earth metals, Transition metals,
Halogens and Noble gases. Here’s a visual of the Periodic
Table.
Moving on, here’s how to use the Periodic Table. Valence electrons
are electrons in the outer shell of an atom which can combine with
other atoms to form molecules. In valence electrons they would be
the last electrons in the last outer shell of the atom. A simple way
to find an element’s valence electron is to look at which group it is
in. When it’s in chemical compound an atom of the degree of
oxidation is an oxidation number. An Oxidation number is a number
assigned to an element in chemical combination that represents the
number of electrons lost (or gained, if the number is negative) by
an atom of that element in the compound.
Periodic Trends are specific patterns that illustrate the properties
and size of electrons. There are 4 trends in the table. They are
electronegativity trends, ionization energy trends, electron affinity
trends, atomic radius trends.
** This picture shows how some trends work. **
(Moving Left → Right)
 Atomic Radius Decreases
 Ionization Energy Increases
 Electron Affinity Generally Increases (except Noble Gas
Electron Affinity Near Zero)
 Electronegativity Increases
(Moving Top → Bottom)




Atomic Radius Increases
Ionization Energy Decreases
Electron Affinity Generally Decreases Moving Down a Group
Electronegativity Decreases
Chapter 5: Bonding
Ionic, Covalent, & Metallic Bonding
In your mind you may think “Bonding” is joining together. You
would be absolutely correct. In chemistry there are three
major bonds. Those bonds would be ionic, covalent, and
metallic bond. Chemical bonds are compounds that are formed
by joining two or more atoms. An ionic bond is a chemical
bond in which one atom loses an electron to form a positive
ion and the other atom gains an electron to form a negative
ion. Second, covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves
sharing a pair of electrons between atoms in a molecule. Third,
a metallic bond is a chemical bond in which electrons are
shared over many nuclei and electronic conduction occurs.
Those bonds are made by force between opposite charges,
either between electrons and nuclei.
Now we’re moving forward with Naming Compounds. When naming a
compound, whether it’s ionic or covalent, first you must find out
what kind of compound it is.
Naming Covalent Compounds
Think about covalent compounds. They are those that have
more than one atom bonded together by the sharing of
electrons.
To name a covalent compound, you need the molecular
formula, knowing the prefixes used for naming, and a way to
look up the name of an element given its atomic symbol. With
this information in hand, you can follow the naming scheme for
covalent compounds: [PREFIX-(Name of 1st element) +
PREFIX-(Root of 2nd element)-“ide”}
Steps to Naming Covalent Compounds
First, identify the elements present.
Second, look at the subscript of each element to determine
which prefix to use. (If an element does not have a prefix,
assume that the subscript is “1.”)
Third, apply the above naming scheme. (Note: If the prefix
of the first element would be “mono-”, it is not needed.)
**This chart gives you the prefixes and meanings to help name
covalent bonds. **
Naming acids… When naming acids it is really a class of ionic
compounds where the cation is always H^+. Don’t name the cation.
A cation is a positively charged ion, i.e., one that would be
attracted to the cathode in electrolysis. The acid name comes
from the root name of the anion name. An anion is a negatively
charged ion, i.e., one that would be attracted to the anode in
electrolysis. The prefix “hydro” and suffix “ic” are added to the
root name of the anion.
Rules for Naming Acids that Do Not Contain Oxygen in the Anion:
Since all these acids have the same cation, H+, we don't need
to name the cation.
The acid name comes from the root name of the anion name.
The prefix hydro- and the suffix -ic are then added to the
root name of the anion.
Rules for Naming Oxyacids (anion contains the element oxygen):
Since all these acids have the same cation, H+, we don't need
to name the cation.
The acid name comes from the root name of the oxyanion
name or the central element of the oxyanion.
Suffixes are used based on the ending of the original name of
the oxyanion. If the name of the polyatomic anion ended with
-ate, change it to -ic for the acid and if it ended with -ite,
change it to -ous in the acid.
If we’re writing formulas there could be several types of chemical
formulas that you can use to represent with chemical bonds. These
include empirical formulas, molecular formulas, and structural
formulas.
You would know the formula of an ionic compound based on the loss
and gain of electrons, to reach a noble gas configuration. However,
you really can’t make that type of prediction with covalent
compounds, because they can combine in many ways, and many
different possible covalent compounds may come about. Empirical
formula would look something like this>>>
. Molecular
formulas would pretty much the same. Here’s a problem that will
show you how to get the molecular formula of any element.
First, calculate the sum of the atomic masses for C3H4O3. Look up
the atomic masses for the elements from the Periodic Table. The
atomic masses are found to be:
H is 1.01- Hydrogen
C is 12.01- Carbon
O is 16.00- Oxygen
*Plugging in these numbers, the sum of the atomic masses for
C3H4O3 is:
3(12.0) + 4(1.0) + 3(16.0) = 88.0
This means the formula mass of vitamin C is 88.0. Compare the
formula mass (88.0) to the approximate molecular mass (180). The
molecular mass is twice the formula mass (180/88 = 2.0), so the
simplest formula must be multiplied by 2 to get the molecular
formula:
molecular formula vitamin C = 2 x C3H4O3 = C6H8O6
Answer: C6H8O6
Structural formula shows the elements in the compound, the exact
number of each atom in the compound, and the bonding pattern for
the compound. This formula ties into “Lewis diagrams and VSEPR”.
VSEPR is Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion. It is a theory that
that is used to describe the boding and structure of each of
molecule. The electron-dot formula and Lewis formula are examples
of structural formulas. Look below at the Lewis formulas presented
in the following figure.
Lewis diagram is a diagram that shows the bonding between atoms
or a molecule and the lone pairs of electron that exists in a
molecule. Let’s take a look at Silicon(S)…
Chapter 6: Chemical Reactions
Reactions Types
In chemistry you will find out about five reaction types. These
reaction types are Combustion, Synthesis, Decomposition, Single
Replacement and Double Replacement. To start off, combustion is a
reaction when oxygen combines with another compound to form
water and carbon dioxide. Next, synthesis is a reaction where two
or more simple compounds combine to form a more complicated one.
Decomposition is a reaction that is the opposite of a synthesis
reaction is really just a molecule that breaks down to make simpler
ones. Single replacement is when one element trades places with
another element in a compound. Yes, elements can swap out.
Finally, double replacement is when the anions and cations of two
different molecules switch places, forming two entirely different
compounds. Once you work with these elements it becomes easier.
No sweat, just check the examples below.
Combustion Looks Like: C10H8 + 12 O2 ---> 10 CO2 + 4 H2O
Synthesis Looks Like: A + B ---> AB
Decomposition Looks Like: AB ---> A + B
Single Replacement Looks Like: A + BC ---> AC + B
Double Replacement Looks Like: AB + CD ---> AD + CB
PRACTICE TIME:
Look at the following compounds below and identify which one are
Combustion, Synthesis, Decomposition, Single Replacement and
Double Replacement.
1.)
2 H O ---> 2 H + O
2.)
Pb(NO ) + 2 KI ---> PbI + 2 KNO
3.)
8 Fe + S ---> 8 FeS
4.)
Mg + 2 H O ---> Mg(OH) + H
5.)
C H + 12 O ---> 10 CO + 4 H O
2
2
3
2
2
2
3
8
2
10
8
2
2
2
2
2
Balancing Equations: A balanced equation is an equation for a
chemical reaction in which the number of atoms for each element in
the reaction and the total charge are the same for both the
reactants and the products. In other words, the mass and the
charge are balanced on both sides of the reaction. When balancing
equations you must get the same number of atoms of every element
on each side of the equation. (Example- C5H12 + O2 ---> CO2 +
H2O = C5H12 + 8O2 ---> 5CO2 + 6H2O) THE PICTURE WILL
ILLUSTRATE THE PROBLEM ABOVE.
Net Ionic Equations: Net ionic equations are chemical equations for
a reaction which only those species participating in the reaction.
**This may seem overwhelming, but I will break it down step by
step for you. Here are 12 steps that will get you through this
process:
1. Write these and the names of products by switching last names
of the reactants.
2. Check solubility of the products, to determine if there is a
reaction. If there is no reaction...STOP!!!!!
(You do not want to do all this works if there is no reaction.)
3. If there is a solid, liquid or gas formed, write each of the 4
ions with the correct charges.
(Separate each with a "+" and place a "=>" after the 4th ion.)
4. Write the correct molecular formula of the reactants by
balancing the charges of the ions.
5. Now write the correct formulas of the products. Remember the
ions switch partners.
(the ratios may be different, pay attention to the charges.)
6. Using the solubility rules, write the phase of each compound as
a
(subscript)
after the formula.
(soluble=(aq), insoluble = (s)
7. Any solid liquid or gas can copy as in onto the lower lines.
(just write them as they appear on line 2, keep them on the right
side of the arrow.)
8. If a product is soluble (aq), write the ions that make it up
under it with "+" between them.
(just copy those ions from the left side of the arrow and put them
on the right.)
(add (aq) to all ions...tedious step)
9. Now you can balance the Molecular reaction
(keep yourself from balancing the reaction until the 2 reactions are
finished.)
10. You have to add coefficients to the ions and the compounds
using the reaction.
(take the subscript for the ion (if it has one) and multiply it by the
coefficient.)
(for the compound, just copy the coefficient from the previous
reaction.)
11. Ignore all spectator ions on, and place the remaining ions with
coefficients.
(Spectator ions appear the same on both sides of the reaction.)
(They don't actually participate in the reaction.)
(If you did this correctly the ions should for the product)
12. Reduce the confidents to the lowest whole number ratio.
HERE’S AN EXAMPLE:
2 Na3PO4 (aq) + 3 CaCl2 (aq) --> 6 NaCl (aq) + Ca3(PO4)2 (s)
6 Na+ (aq) + 2 PO43- (aq) + 3 Ca2+ (aq) + 6 Cl- (aq) --> 6 Na+ (aq)
+ 6 Cl- (aq) + Ca3(PO4)2 (s)
2 Na3PO4 (aq) --> 6 Na+ (aq) + 2 PO43- (aq)
3 CaCl2 (aq) --> 3 Ca2+ (aq) + 6 Cl- (aq)
6 NaCl (aq) --> 6 Na+ (aq) + 6 Cl- (aq)
6 Na+ (aq) + 2 PO43- (aq) + 3 Ca2+ (aq) + 6 Cl- (aq) --> 6 Na+ (aq)
+ 6 Cl- (aq) + Ca3(PO4)2 (s)
6 Na+ (aq) + 2 PO43- (aq) + 3 Ca2+ (aq) + 6 Cl- (aq) --> 6 Na+ (aq)
+ 6 Cl- (aq) + Ca3(PO4)2 (s)
2 PO43- (aq) + 3 Ca2+ (aq) --> Ca3(PO4)2 (s)
Here’s A Practice Problem:
1.)
3 (NH4)2CO3 (aq) + 2 Al(NO3)3 (aq) --> 6 NH4NO3 (aq) +
Al2(CO3)3 (s)
Chapter 7: Stoichiometry
Calculating Stoichiometry Equations
Stoichiometry is the relationships or ratios between two or
more substances undergoing a physical or chemical change
(chemical reaction). In Chemistry Stoichiometry is the part
of chemistry that really has reactants and products in
chemical reactions. This can be used to figure out quantities
like the amount of products that can be produced with given
reactants and percent yield. The next 4 steps I give you will
make this part of chemistry easier.
1. Balance the equation.
2. Convert units of a given substance to moles.
3. Using the mole ratio, calculate the moles of substance yielded
by the reaction.
4. Convert moles of wanted substance to desired units.
These examples should help you understand it more:
Problem : 2Al +3Cl2→2AlCl3
When 80 grams of aluminum is reacted with excess chlorine gas,
how many formula units of AlCl3 are produced?
×1 mole Al = 2.96 moles Al
There is a 1:1 ratio between Al and AlCl3 , therefore there are
2.96 moles AlCl3 .
= 1.78×1025
Gas Laws: In gas laws there are a few of laws that you would need
to know. These laws are Boyle’s law, Charles’s law, Gay-Lussac’s
law and the combined gas laws. You would need to know the
formulas. Boyle’s Law is the pressure of a gas at constant
temperature however volume varies at a non-constant rate.
Charles’s Law is a gas law where at constant pressure, the volume
of a gas is directly even to its temperature. Gay-Lussac law is the
density of a gas at constant pressure varies inversely with the
temperature. Combine gas law is simply all three of those fellows
laws put together.
References: www.bondless.com/chemistry
www.chem4kids.com
www.theweatherprediction.com
www.kentchemistry.com
www.youtube.com
www.sciencespot.net
www.dummies.com
misterguch.brinkster.net