July 28, 2011
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To:
From:
Date:
Subject:
WVC Omak Students, HUMN& 101
RC Hoover, Instructor, HUMN& 101
February 9, 2016
Metaphysics, Introduction and Outline
INTRODUCTION: Discovering One's Own 'Metaphysics.'
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Physics addresses questions like "How does gravity work?"
Physics helps us understand what we see in the Natural World
around us.
Metaphysics addresses questions like "Why do humans value
freedom?" Metaphysics helps us understand ourselves, especially
where our ideas come from and how our ideas fit together.
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I consider Metaphysics to have five branches: Epistemology,
Ontology, Theology, Anthropology, and Ethics.
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Epistemology examines the origin and reliability of knowledge;
epistemology addresses the question "How do we 'know'?"
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Ontology examines the nature and kinds of existence; ontology
addresses the question "What is real?"
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Theology examines religious systems; theology addresses the
question "What lies behind/beyond objective reality?"
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Anthropology examines Human Nature; anthropology addresses the
question "Can Human Nature be defined?"
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Ethics examines the value of what we think and what we do;
ethics addresses the question "What is best?"
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You have answers to each of these metaphysical questions, even
if you cannot write those answers on a piece of paper.
Understanding something about Metaphysics can help you better
understand your own answers, and, therefore, help you better
understand yourself.
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OUTLINE: The Branches of Metaphysics
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Epistemology: "How do we 'know'?"
Observation (experience)
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Sensory phenomena (seeing, hearing, touching, etc.)
Accepted as "valid" if confirmed by reason or testimony,
Hoover, Metaphysics, July 28, 2011, Page 2
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otherwise rejected as "illusion" (mirage, hallucination,
hypochondria)
Reason (cognition)
Intellectual operation (a+b=c
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a=1
b=2
c=?)
Accepted as "valid" if confirmed by observation or
testimony, otherwise rejected as "speculation"
Testimony (in court, textbooks, used-car salesmen, memory)
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Information from others (an earlier self?) about something
neither experienced nor reasoned
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Accepted as "valid" if witness has credibility, otherwise
rejected as "mere opinion" or "falsehood"
Other (inspiration/intuition/clairvoyance/second sight)
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Sense of the unobserved, unreasoned, and unreported, which
is yet compellingly known (sense of impending danger)
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Accepted as "valid" if and only if confirmed by both
observation and reason, otherwise rejected as "mysticism"
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Ontology: "What is real?" (Note: a good starting point is the
tradition that something is real if we should react to it)
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Each type of reality has its own pattern of operation; these
patterns resemble one another, but are not identical (flowers,
friendships, and the future do not "grow" in the same way)
Objective
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Matter (water, air, a flower)
Energy (sunlight, fire, pressure)
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Subjective
Feelings (love, fear, remorse)
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Ideas (freedom, respect, duty)
Potential
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The future (after class, next weekend, when I ____________)
The unseen (see Theology, below)
Hoover, Metaphysics, July 28, 2011, Page 3
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Theology: "What lies behind/beyond objective reality?"
What lies behind/beyond objective reality? Nothing! (Radical
materialism)
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Nothing lies behind/beyond objective reality, because
objective reality is the only reality (everything is cause
and effect operating on matter and energy without influence
from mysterious or mystical forces: Naturalism)
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Nothing lies behind/beyond objective reality, and that's
okay (Nihilism)
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Nothing lies behind/beyond objective reality, and that's NOT
okay (Existentialism)
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What lies behind/beyond objective reality? Something . . .
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But knowledge of what lies behind/beyond objective reality
is not reliable . . .
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Something might be there, but, if there is, it is so
different from what we know that we cannot understand it
(philosophical agnosticism)
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I do not know what is there, at least not yet
(agnosticism)
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First, scientifically reliable knowledge is based on
rigorous observation of "objective reality;" second,
Theology addresses a realm "behind/beyond objective
reality"; therefore, logically, science cannot develop
reliable knowledge about "What lies behind/beyond
objective reality"; so, science is unable to support or
refute the extra-material claims of Theology (Scientific
Naturalism)
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And knowledge of what lies behind/beyond objective reality
is reliable; in fact we can know . . .
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Everything about of what lies behind/beyond objective
reality: radical spiritism or spiritualism (popular circa
1840-1930: Ouija boards, séances, etc.)
Something about of what lies behind/beyond objective
reality, specifically we know that . . .
What lies behind/beyond objective reality includes a
number of diverse spirits
Hoover, Metaphysics, July 28, 2011, Page 4
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Many are spirits with personalities (human [including
the dead], near human, not-so-human, good, neutral,
evil: spiritism (see radical spiritism, above)
Many of these spirits can and should be associated
with animals, objects, and places (animism, found in
many Native American traditions and in Japanese
Shinto)
All things are one divine substance: pantheism
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Transcendentalism: (Ralph Waldo Emerson) when one does
not experience nature, one will suffer spiritual
distress and psychic damage
Hinduism: karma; reincarnation; caste system; the
Vedas; Vishnu (the preserver) and Shiva (the
destroyer) are metaphors representing aspects of the
all-divine (Brahman), not actual divine persons
Buddhism: offshoot of Hinduism; primary teachings are
found in the Tripitaka (Sanskrit for "Three Baskets"):
Vinaya Pitaka (the "Rules of Discipline"), Sutra
Pitaka ("Buddha's Teachings and Sermons"), and
Abhidharma Pitaka ("Further Doctrine")
Many gods exist: polytheism
Greek pantheon: Zeus, Apollo, Aphrodite, etc.
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Norse pantheon: Odin, Thor, Freya, etc.
One God exists: monotheism
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Judaism (Moses, Torah, Hasidic, Orthodox, Reform)
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Christianity (Paul, Holy Bible; Coptic, Roman
Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Protestant)
Islam (Mohammed, Qur'an; Sunni, Shi‘a, Sufi)
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Deism (Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson)
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God does not exist: atheism (Bertrand Russell, Madeline
Murray O'Hare; see also Naturalism, noted above)
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One's metaphysical assumptions about theology determine one's
view of luck, fate, and magic (see handout "Magic")
Hoover, Metaphysics, July 28, 2011, Page 5
Anthropology: "Can Human Nature be defined?"
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No, humans have no clearly defined nature
Yes, individual humans have a clearly defined Nature . . .
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. . . and Human Nature is innate
Innately good (Rousseau)
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Innately bad (Glaucon, Machiavelli)
Innately mixed (Schaeffer)
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Innately neutral (Locke)
. . . and Human Nature is a product of particular influences
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Fate (one's nature is determined by the gods, the stars,
etc.)
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Free will (one's nature is determined by one's own
choices)
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Experience ("nurture" side of nature/nurture argument)
Biology ("nature" side of nature/nurture argument)
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. . . and Human Nature is a combination of both "innate
quality" and "particular influences"
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. . . and Human Nature remains neutral, but is labeled in
various ways by various others
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Yes, as a group, humans have a clearly defined Nature . . .
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. . . and something within us pushes us toward our fate, for
example
Humanity's continuing social and biological evolution
pushes us towards successful adaptation to our
social/physical environment
Humanity's warlike nature pushes us towards nuclear
self-destruction
. . . and something outside us pulls us toward our fate, for
example
Karma will ordain our future (Bhagavad-Gita)
Hoover, Metaphysics, July 28, 2011, Page 6
God has ordained a Judgment Day (Holy Bible)
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The Historical Dialectic will result in utopian communism
(Das Kapital)
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. . . and that nature is best understood in terms of Cycles
(human organization follows a pattern), for example
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Human organization centers first on the self, then on the
clan, then on the tribe, then on the nation, then repeats,
centering on the self, then on the clan, then on the
tribe, then on the nation . . .
Civilization overcomes barbarism, then barbarism overcomes
civilization, then civilization . . . (The Beer Theory)
. . . and there are Other Possibilities, for example
Neither "Human Nature" nor destiny can dominate us (free
will, freedom, self-determination)
It all depends on the environment (Skinner)
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If Human Nature can be defined, is it consistent?
No, Human Nature is not consistent
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. . . and people change at random
. . . and people change for clear reasons
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Internal reasons
Conscious, informed choice (Free Will)
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Emotional reasons (love, bitterness, "growing up,"
etc.)
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Spiritual reasons (finding/losing faith, etc.)
External reasons
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Tragedy
Chemical influence (drugs, nutrition, etc.)
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Other (presence or absence of "support," etc.)
Yes, Human Nature is consistent; specifically . . .
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. . . Human Nature is consistent across time within the
Hoover, Metaphysics, July 28, 2011, Page 7
individual (people never really change)
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The four humours: Sanguine (Air), Choleric (Fire),
Melancholic (Earth), Phlegmatic (Water)
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The twelve signs of the Zodiac
Birth Order
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Other (question to students: any suggestions?)
. . . Human Nature is consistent within specific Groups
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Involuntary groups
Family/clan/tribe/cast (Kennedy = rich liberal; Bush =
rich conservative)
Gender (men are all the same; women are all the same)
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To understand men, one should consider money,
ideology, conscience, and ego (MICE)
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To understand women, one should consider security,
ego, and attitude (SEA)
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Culture/socioeconomic stratum (the rich are selfish;
the poor are dirty)
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Aesthetic appeal (ugly = worthless; beauty = worthy:
high school)
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Ethnicity (Jews cause our problems: Nazi Germany)
Age (old people are weak)
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Voluntary groups
Social (sorority girls are stuck-up)
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Professional (lawyers are dishonest)
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Political (Democrats are liberal big-spending wimps;
Republicans are conservative heartless warmongers)
Religious (Puritans were intolerant prudes)
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. . . Human Nature is Universal (group membership does not
matter: people are the same everywhere, always have been,
always will be)
Hoover, Metaphysics, July 28, 2011, Page 8
Ethics: "What is best?" the beautiful, the true, and the good.
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"What is beautiful?" (Aesthetics)
Can we distinguish the "beautiful" from the "ugly"?
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Yes, beauty is as real as justice is (humans innately
sense its presence and its absence)
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No, all answers are subjective and probably self-serving
Why do we call something or someone "beautiful"?
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Our sojourn in the Realm of the Ideal (Plato)
Cultural norms
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Peer pressure
Personal taste
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Evolutionary advantage
"What is true?" (Logic and Rhetoric)
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Can we tell whether or not a statement is "true"?
No, we cannot tell when a statement is true:
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Radical skepticism: "truth" does not exist; all who
claim that something is "true" are either deceiving
themselves or attempting to deceive others
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Implications: difficult to deceive, but increases risk
for feeling adrift in a meaningless universe
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Policy: recommendations focus on short term solutions
promoted in terms of self-interest
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Yes, we can tell when a statement is true, because truth
exists, and we know how "truth" works
Foundationalism: "the truth is out there"; reason and
experience lead us ever closer to objective truth;
intuition is valuable when it moves reason and
experience in new directions
Implications: if I see X as true, then you should, too
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Policy: recommendations tend to be rigid, promoted in
terms of scientific certainties and/or moral absolutes
Hoover, Metaphysics, July 28, 2011, Page 9
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Radical positivism: "it only counts if we can quantify
it"; basis for traditional Western scientific inquiry
(see Naturalism, note above)
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Implications: powerful tool for addressing objective
reality
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Policy: recommendations dismiss the subjective or the
potential as irrelevant or unknowable, promoted in
terms of "studies show . . ."
Anti-foundationalism: "truth is a cultural artifact"; no
truth exists objectively; all so called truth hinges on
a cultural/historical/linguistic context
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Implications: often suspicious of Foundationalism and
Radical positivism
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Policy: recommendations emphasize cultural context,
promoted in terms of "cultural awareness"
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Individualism: "the self is the first, best, and final
judge of truth"
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Implications: resists use of "truth" as a tool of
control
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Policy: recommendations tend to be based on "that's
what I think" or "it works for me"
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Limited Divine Inspiration: "God speaks truth to us"-knowledge not limited by any of the above forms
Implications: any of the above form of truth are
subject to being supplemented by God (or gods)
providing information (info verifiable to x degree)
directly to someone (that one credible to x degree)-consensus on verifiability and credibility sometimes
firm, sometimes elusive
Policy: recommendations tend to be based on "The Word
of God" which must then be understood and applied by
people--with varied historical results (good and bad
by modern tastes), as per India, Meso-America, the
Middle East, Medieval Europe, modern Iran, etc.
Does "truth" matter?
No, truth does not matter . . .
Hoover, Metaphysics, July 28, 2011, Page 10
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Because "truth" does not exist (skepticism)
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Because "truth" is only relative (anti-foundationalism
or individualism)
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Yes, truth does matter because "truth" is the key to
reality (foundationalism, radical positivism, and limited
divine inspiration)
"What is good?" (Morality)
Satisfying answers to the question "What is good?" can be
based on tradition, for example
"That's how we did it in my family"
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"It works for me"
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Ten Commandments: no other gods; no idols; no blasphemy;
keep Sabbath; honor parents; no murder; no adultery; no
stealing; no lying; no jealousy
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Seven deadly sins: pride, envy, wrath, sloth, greed,
gluttony, and lust
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Seven cardinal virtues: faith, hope, love, prudence,
justice, fortitude, and temperance
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Fruit of the Spirit: love, joy, peace, patience, kindness,
goodness, gentleness, and self-control
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Four qualities of the warrior: courage, fortitude, wisdom,
generosity
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Four noble truths: life is filled with pain; pain is
caused by the need to possess; there is a way out of pain;
that way is the eightfold path
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Eightfold path: right views; right intentions; right
speech; right conduct; right livelihood; right effort;
right mindfulness; right concentration
Satisfying answers to the question "What is good?" can be
based on careful thought, recognizing that the question
"What is good?" focuses both on the individual and on the
group
When focusing on the individual, a moral system (a set of
related answers to the question "What is good?") addresses
two circumstances: normal and special
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When a moral system focus on the individual under normal
circumstances, it answers questions concerning
Rights (should you be free to leave if you want?)
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Responsibilities (under what circumstances do you have
a responsibility to stay? to go?)
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Proper privileges (if you stay, what should--and what
shouldn't--you be granted for staying?)
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When a moral system focuses on the individual under
special circumstances, it answers the questions
When should one give/receive praise?
When should one give/receive reproach?
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When focusing on the group, a moral system addresses
normal circumstances and special circumstances
When a moral system focuses on the group under normal
circumstances, it answers questions concerning
Justice (what are the rules? are the rules fair? do
they apply here? should the rules change? who has the
right to answer these questions?)
Equity (does everyone have "enough"? what is "enough"?
does anyone have "too much"? what is "too much"? who
has the right to answer these questions?)
Liberty (should the group allow members to do this?
should the group create rules governing this? who has
the right to answer these questions?)
Peace (a condition which exists when the group has
reached a stable, freely-chosen consensus on the
answers to questions of Justice, Equity, and Liberty)
When a moral system focuses on the group under special
circumstances, it answers the questions
What is (un)acceptable or (dis)honorable?
During conflict? (Domestic dispute? Legal dispute?
Riot? War?)
When "others" are among us? (Guests? Intruders?)
Hoover, Metaphysics, July 28, 2011, Page 12
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When/how should we celebrate?
Discussion of moral questions often fails to produce
satisfying answers
Several factors contribute to this failure
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Casting moral questions in terms of "harm"
Failing to clarify exactly what we mean by "harm"
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Allowing the discussion of "who suffers harm" to
vacillate between "the individual" and "the group"
Such failure impedes the development of useful answers,
but this failure obscures the fact that our manner of
addressing moral questions is an improvement over the two
primary alternatives: tradition and the strong
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Answers from tradition have had difficulty adjusting to
changes in the environment (physical or social)
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Answers from the strong have had difficulty addressing
the concerns of the weak (both individuals and groups)
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If one claims the right to answer a moral question, and if
one cannot provide satisfying answers to the questions
below, then one's claim to "moral authority" is ill-founded
Questions about the nature of ethics
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Why does a satisfying answer come from "ethics" rather
than from science or whim?
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What sort of ethical answer really satisfies the
questioner?
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Questions about the nature of the relevant circumstances
What does one need to know about the situation to
provide a satisfying answer?
Does the one attempting to answer know this?
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Questions about Human Nature itself
Why do we hunger for answers?
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What do we do with the answers when they get them?
Hoover, Metaphysics, July 28, 2011, Page 13
QUESTIONS ASSOCIATED WITH METAPHYSICS
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1. Which branch of metaphysics interests you the most? Why?
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2. Identify, by line numbers, three statements in the OUTLINE
which come close to expressing your own views? Why these
statements and not others?
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3. Do you, and those with whom you converse, truly understand
one another when you discuss the issues raised in the
OUTLINE?
a. Do you need to understand your ideas before you can discuss
these issues? If so, why?
b. Is it in discussing these issues that you come to
understand your ideas? If so, why?
RCH (with thanks to GVH, LAW, JRW, and KJ)