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Women in the Roman Empire
The Roman Empire operated as a patriarchy, or a culture controlled by men. Political power was in the
hands of men, and women could not vote or hold political office. In fact, very few women were educated. Some
Roman women could own property and, in certain circumstances, handle their own money. For the most part,
though, women were under the control of their fathers and their husbands. A woman’s father or husband also
determined her social class. With so many restrictions and limitations placed on women, what was life like for a
woman in the Roman Empire?
The answer to this question depended on the woman’s social status. Wealthy, upper-class women had
more rights and privileges than lower-class women, and even some men. Upper-class women also had more
time to spend on their appearance and dress. We tend to know more about upper-class women because many of
their artifacts and actual homes remain. Also, their ways of life were preserved in art and in writings. Though
today we know a lot about upper-class women in ancient Rome, they were actually the minority. Most Roman
women were part of the lower class—commoners, enslaved women, and those that lived a rural life.
Upper-Class Roman Women and Girls
In the Roman Empire, the upper class consisted of the emperor and his family, plus men with political
or economic power and their families. In the Roman Republic, class was determined by birth. In other words,
people always belonged to the same class as their parents. Unlike the Roman Republic, in the Roman Empire,
class was also determined by merit, not just birth. Men could move up according to what they accomplished,
through government or personal wealth. The privileged wives and daughters of upper-class patrician men lived
in large houses with courtyards in the middle. Patrician comes from the Latin word for “father.” Patrician
women were in charge of the household but would not do the actual housework. Instead, enslaved people
prepared the food, cleaned the house, made clothing, and tended the gardens.
Upper-class women ate a wide variety of foods, including fresh vegetables from their gardens. Because
they were wealthy, these women could afford to eat plenty of meat. They did not eat their meals at a table.
Instead, like other members of their class, they ate lying down on couches in a spacious dining room.
Although women were not equals to men in Rome, a wealthy woman had influence because of her rank
in society. When her husband was away, a patrician woman would run the finances and handle money. By law,
women could buy, sell, own, and inherit property. In the Roman Empire, upon a man’s death, his land was
divided equally among his children, including his daughters.
Unlike most girls in Rome, patrician daughters had a formal education. These girls studied at home with
a tutor, oftentimes an enslaved Greek. Greeks were respected for their intelligence and education. When Roman
legions conquered Greek homelands, they sold the captured Greek men at Roman slave markets. Enslaved
Greeks were brought to patrician homes as teachers. Greek tutors taught girls to read and write Latin, the
language of the Roman people. The girls used a wax tablet to write on and practice their letters.
A Roman girl nearing the age of 13 was ready for marriage. Her husband would probably be in his mid20s, perhaps twice her age. Typically, fathers arranged marriages. However, parents did ask for their daughters’
input. Marriage was an opportunity for a Roman girl to move up in wealth or social status.
As an alternative to marriage, a young patrician girl could become a priestess. The Vestal Virgins were
an order of priestesses. The Vestal’s job was to keep a sacred fire burning in honor of Vesta, goddess of the
hearth. These women took a sacred vow promising not to marry or have children for 30 years. After these years
of service, they were free to marry and have children.
Lower-Class Women and Girls
There was no middle class in the Roman Empire. Women were either in the upper class, due to wealth
or status, or in the lower class. Lower-class women consisted of plebians (commoners born to free Romans),
foreigners, freed people (those who used to be enslaved), and enslaved people. Some plebian women worked
with their husbands in the fields outside of the city. These rural women would help tend the farms. After
harvest, rural women brought their goods to the marketplace to sell or barter. Rural women did not have slave
labor to work their fields. Plebian women in the city included, among many occupations, merchants and skilled
manufacturers of jewelry or clothing.
Surprisingly, in this class, enslaved women had the most interaction with patrician women. Enslaved
women completed domestic duties for the wealthy: they cleaned the upper-class homes, took care of their
children, and harvested their gardens. However, being enslaved, male or female, in Rome was not pleasant.
People were bought and sold in slave markets. If purchased by a cruel slave owner, enslaved women were often
beaten and mistreated. Some enslaved women were forced to become gladiators. These female gladiators fought
to the death for the viewing pleasure of the masses. Because most plebian women could not write, they were
unable to record their life experiences for future generations.
Where the Classes Co-Existed
Since enslaved people did all the housework, wealthy women and their daughters had plenty of leisure
time. Though the wealthy had the most leisure time, all classes of Romans could find time for recreation. A
favorite pastime of nearly all Romans was the daily visit to the public baths. Romans loved water and bathing.
Their armies and slaves built massive stone channels, called aqueducts, throughout the empire. These structures
worked as pipes that brought water to public baths. The baths were huge, elaborate structures. They provided a
place for the Roman women to meet, socialize, and get clean. Roman men and women bathed separately, and
then enjoyed exercising and shopping at the baths.
Though women may have shopped at the baths, the main shopping district in Rome was the forum. By
the second century CE, there were at least three—Trajan’s Forum, the Forum of Julius, and the Forum of
Augustus. Forums were like downtown districts, filled with vendors, schools, government offices, temples, and
monuments. The forum was a popular place for girls to meet and socialize. Lower-class women, including slave
women, sold and traded commodities such as meats, vegetables, oils, wines, threads, and fabrics. Very wealthy
women were actually carried through the forum by slaves to show off their status.
Women’s Clothing and Hair in the Roman Empire
Public display of status was important, especially to the upper classes. A woman’s clothing and hairstyle
reflected her status. Poor plebian and enslaved women often had just one set of clothes, perhaps a simple tunic.
A tunic was a long, full dress. Commoners wore tunics made of whatever material was readily available, like
wool. Plebian women spent much time working, either in the fields or in the city, and they often could not
afford to have multiple outfits, so they wore simple attire. Wealthy patrician women wore a tunic with an
additional piece of clothing. The extra layer indicated their wealth and ability to afford more than one outfit.
The tunics of the wealthy women and girls were made of imported silk. Patrician ladies also adorned themselves
in gold and pearl jewelry. Married women in both classes added a sleeveless tunic called a stola. The stola
symbolized and visibly displayed a woman’s marital status for all to see.
Upper-class women also showed their status through their elaborate hairstyles. These females would
have their hair curled, braided, and woven with artificial hair, similar to a weave. Patrician women added spun
gold hairnets and jewel-encrusted hairpins to further flaunt their riches. With such complex hairstyles, wealthy
women had their own hairdressers or slaves fix their hair. Plebian women did not have the time or means to
wear the fancier hairstyles. These females had simple hairstyles. A bun at the back of the neck or a coiled knot
atop the head were common hairstyles of the lower-class ladies.
A Moment of Equality
Each December, after the autumn planting was finished, Romans honored Saturn, the god of agriculture.
The holiday was called Saturnalia. Depending on the year and the ruler at the time, the holiday lasted from a
day to over a week. During Saturnalia, social classes were equal and sometimes even turned upside down. At
public banquets, the wealthiest women would wait on their female slaves. Some patrician ladies lent their finest
garments to their servants to wear during Saturnalia celebrations. Saturnalia was a time to give thanks, visit
friends, and exchange gifts. People could be seen singing, dancing, and celebrating in the streets.
In the Roman Empire, there were times when women from different classes would spend time together.
However, for the most part, women in different classes kept to their own group. The daily lives and lifestyles of
women in the Roman Empire were largely dependent upon their place in society. Because class was linked to
their fathers and husbands, women could not directly change their own social status. However, Roman women
could, and often did, influence their husbands’ decisions. Historians recount stories of powerful Roman women
such as Livia and Aggrippina. These women were married to the Emperors Augustus and Claudius, and many
feel their actions changed the course of Roman history.
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Questions: (8 points)
1. There were different groups of women in the Roman Empire, including patrician, plebian, rural, and
enslaved women. Summarize the daily life of a woman from one of the groups. Choose one group and
explain how a female in this group might view a female in another group. Provide details from the
passage to support your answer.