Med Partnership- Strategic Partnership for the Mediterranean
Sea Large Marine Ecosystem
UNESCO-IHP-Sub-component 1.1
"Management of Coastal Aquifers and Groundwater"
Activity 1.1.1. "Assessment of Risk and Uncertainty related to
Coastal Aquifers Management in the Mediterranean"
Egypt Report
Prepared by
Prof. Dr. Nahed El Sayed El Arabi
Director of Research Institute for Groundwater
National Water Research Center
Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation
EGYPT
May 2012
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1- INTRODUCTION
1.1 - PHYSICAL SETTING OF COASTAL AREA ON THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA
1.2-POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT
1.3- HYDROGEOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK
1.4- WATER AVAILABILITY
2- Part 1: Description
-
Northern Coastal aquifer of Western Desert (North West Coast Aquifer)
North coastal aquifer of the Nile Delta
Coastal aquifer of North Sinai
3- Part 2: Analytical
-
Northern Coastal aquifer of Western Desert (North West Coast Aquifer)
North coastal aquifer of the Nile Delta
Coastal aquifer of North Sinai
4- Part 3: Recommendations
-
Northern Coastal aquifer of Western Desert (North West Coast Aquifer)
North coastal aquifer of the Nile Delta
Coastal aquifer of North Sinai
5- Part 4: Case Studies
1- INTRODUCTION
This report has been prepared in order to fulfill the requirements of UNESCO-IHP Subcomponent 1.1 on "Managing Coastal Aquifer and Groundwater" of GEF UNEP/MAP
"Strategic Partnership for the Mediterranean Sea Large Marine Ecosystem (Med
partnership)", Activity 1.1.1. "Assessment of Risk and Uncertainty related to Coastal
Aquifers Management in the Mediterranean".
1.1 - PHYSICAL SETTING OF COASTAL AREA ON THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA
Egypt lies for the most part within the temperate zone, and the climate varies from arid to
extremely arid. The air temperature frequently rises to over 40o C in daytime during summer,
and seldom falls to zero in winter. The average rainfall along the Mediterranean coastal zone,
where most of the winter rain occurs, varies between 130 and 170 mm/year, decreasing
rapidly inland to the south as shown in (fig 1). The tidal range is about 30-40 cm.
Figure 1. Average Annual Rainfall in Egypt
The landscape in Egypt can be broadly divided into the elevated structural plateaus and the
low plains, which include the fluviatile and the Mediterranean coastal plains.
These geomorphologic units play a significant role in determining the hydrogeological
framework of Egypt. The low plains can contain productive aquifers and are also, in some
places, areas of groundwater discharge.
The Mediterranean coastal zone in Egypt represents the northern limit of Egypt and is more
than 1000 kilometres long (fig 2). It is divided geographically into three regions: (1) The
Northern coast of the Western Desert; (2) The Northern coast of the Nile Delta; (3) The
Northern coast of Sinai Peninsula.
The Mediterranean coastal shoreline includes five large lakes which constitute about 25% of
the total area of wetlands in the Mediterranean region.
Mediterranean Sea
The Western Desert
The Nile Delta
Sinai Peninsula
Figure 2. Mediterranean coastal zone in Egypt
1.2-POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Egypt's population was estimated in July 2011, at 82 million people and is still growing. It is
the most populated country in the Arab world and the 2nd most populated on the African
Continent.
About 11.5% of the population is concentrated in Cairo, 7.1% in the coastal regions, 43.5% in
the Delta, the rest in upper Egypt and the remaining area of the country.
The Egyptian coasts extend for about 3500 km along the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. In
addition, there are many inland lakes (Lake Naser, saline Lake Qarun in Fayoum). The
Mediterranean coastal zone of Egypt hosts a large number of economic and industrial centers as
well as important beaches and tourist resorts. Industrial activities (including petroleum and
chemicals) and tourism activities are distributed among a large number of highly populated
economic centers such as the cities of Rosetta, Damietta, Port Said and Alexandria, which is the
main harbor on the western side of the Delta. The city hosts about 40% of the country’s
industrial capacity, in addition to being an important summer resort.
1.3- HYDROGEOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK
The hydrogeological framework of the Mediterranean coastal zone in Egypt includes three
main aquifer systems bounded by the blue line as shown in (fig 3). These aquifers are best
described as oolitic limestone aquifers dominating the north of western desert, while in the
northern Nile Delta sand and gravel beds, intercalated with clay lenses, and by complex
fluviatile sandy gravel and the shallow marine calcareous limestone in North Sinai:
1- The aquifer system of north the western desert (North West aquifer) assigned to the
Quaternary and Late Tertiary. It is the longest aquifer of the three, at about 500 km in length,
but with the smallest width, at an average of 3 km.
2- The aquifer system of north Delta assigned to the Quaternary and Late Tertiary. It has a
length of about 300 km, and is the widest of the three, at 40 km.
3- The aquifer system of north Sinai assigned to the Quaternary and Late Tertiary. It has a
length of about 200 km, and ranges in width from 5 km in the east to 40 km in the west.
North West aquifer
North Delta aquifer
North Sinai aquifer
Figure 3: Distribution of Main Aquifer Systems of the Mediterranean coastal zone
1.4- WATER AVAILABILITY
In general, Egypt suffer from water shortage, each person has an average of less than 1,000
cubic meters (703 m3/year) of fresh water a year, a situation described as a “chronic
shortage”. And it is expected that this amount will decrease rabidly with time due to the
population increase as shown in (fig 4).
Figure 4 Population growth and per capita water availability deterioration
The United Nations Organizations as UNESCO and World Resources Institute (WRI) had
classified Egypt among the 30th poorest countries in water through the world. And they
estimated that Egypt is one of the countries that face the situation of Water Acute Shortage as
shown in the next two maps (fig 5).
Figure 5 Classification of Water Situation of Egypt on the worlds map
In the three Mediterranean coastal areas, the situation is more acute. That is due to the
shortage of Nile fresh water that reaches there. Especially in North West Coast and North
Sinai where they depend essentially on groundwater.
In summer due to the internal tourism, water shortage increase rapidly. So, we see that the
person share decreases through this season. In North Delta coastal area, the person average is
about 610 m3/year decreases to nearly 500 m3/year in summer.
In North Sinai coastal area, the person average is about 290 m3/year decreases to nearly 180
m3/year in summer, while in North West coastal area, the person average is about 240 m3/year
decreases to nearly 130 m3/year in summer, as shown in (fig 6).
m3/year
750
703
610
650
Winter
550
500
Summer
450
350
290
240
250
180
130
150
50
Egypt
North Delta
North Sinai
North Coast
Figure 6 Classification of Water Situation of Egypt on the worlds map
Attempts to solve the water shortage based exclusively on technology, such as desalination of
sea water, will only have a limited impact due to their cost. We must improve the efficiency
of our water usage, particularly for irrigation, refurbish drinking water production and
distribution resources, protect reserves (aquifers) and combat pollution.
Due to that, in the three Mediterranean coastal areas, which depend mainly on groundwater,
the development of the three aquifers and their assessment represent a most priority to a huge
number of people living there and their investments, especially and urgently in North Sinai
coastal area.
- The main characteristics of the three aquifers will be discussed individually as follows:
2- Part 1: Description
Northern Coastal aquifer of Western Desert (North West Coast Aquifer)

General climatic conditions
This coastal aquifer extends in the form of strip from Alexandria in the east to El Sallum in
the west. The climate in this part of the country is nearly homogeneous, and in general, can
be described as a temperate Mediterranean climate, transitioning from a moderate coastal
climate in the north to an arid-semiarid desert climate in the south.
Rainfall is considered as the main source of recharge of groundwater aquifers in the
northwestern Mediterranean coastal zone and, as such, it affects greatly the amount of water
stored in these aquifers. The Mediterranean North West coastal zone of Egypt receives
noticeable amounts of rainfall, especially in winter, when it ranges from 95 to 160 mm. The
rainfall generally occurs between October and March, and while the summer season is almost
completely dry, traces of rainfall are recorded occasionally in April, May and September.
The study area, as well as the other desert coastal areas, is characterized by wide seasonal
variations in air temperatures. The average maximum air temperature occurs in the
summer, when it reaches 29.6 oC in August. The average minimum air temperature is occurs
in the winter, when it reaches 8.9 0C in January. The recorded average annual temperature is
19.4 0C
There is high relative humidity in the area of study, due to the effect of the sea. This humidity
plays an important role in dew condensation on the sand dunes. This process is well illustrated
by the presence of vegetation in places where drifting sands accumulate, i.e., where it is
favourable for dew condensation. The condensation process is most intensive at a depth of 10
to 15 cm from the ground surface, and the amount of the condensed water in the deserts
reaches 4 to 8 mm in the water column, which is sufficient for the existence of certain types
of vegetation but does not contribute much to the ground water storage. The relative humidity
is high in July (73%) and is low in March (63 %).
The average recorded value of evaporation in Mersa Matruh station reaches 2420 mm
annually.

Location and characteristics of North West Coast Aquifer
The northwest coastal aquifer extends in the form of strip covering an area of about 5,000
km2; it consists of friable sand, silt, sand sheet, sand dunes and oolitic limestone. Shata
(1957) studied the regional morphological features of the Mersa Matruh area and
characterized it into two different sub-areas:
(a) The northern coastal plain, which is formed of alternating ridges and depressions
running parallel to the Mediterranean shore line; and
(b) The Southern tableland, which represents the northern extremity of the
Marmarica Homoclinal plateau.
El Shamy (1969) identified the following two main hydrophysiographic provinces in the
northwestern coastal zone (fig 7):
(1)
The eastern province, extending eastward from Alexandria to Ras El Hekma, is
characterized by a broad coastal plain with elongated ridges and lagoonal
depressions. There is no distinct line of demarcation between the coastal plain and
the bordering southern tableland.
(2)
The western province, extending from Ras El Hekma to Sallum, is characterized by
a local and rather narrow coastal plain, which is sometimes absent. There is a
distinct line of demarcation between the coastal plain and the southern tableland,
and a series of well-developed drainage lines extend across the tableland.
Figure 7: Physiographic provinces, northwestern Mediterranean coast of Egypt
The northwestern Mediterranean coastal zone, which extends between Alexandria and
Sallum, occupies the northern extremity of the great Marmarica homoclinal plateau which
extends to the north of the Qattara Depression. The surface of this plateau rises about 200 m
above sea level and slopes gently to the north, in the direction of the Mediterranean Sea.
This zone displays geomorphological features, which reflect the effect of both arid and wet
climatic conditions. The landforms (tableland, ridges, depressions, dunes, drainage lines and
near – shore lakes) influence the ground water conditions of the studied area. Such landforms
control the spreading of the surface runoff which either accumulates in depressions or drains
into the sea or the near-shore lakes.
Geomorphologic studies indicated that the northwestern Mediterranean coastal zone can be
differentiated into the following geomorphologic units:
1. The northern coastal plain;
2. The piedmont plain; and
3. The southern tableland (structural plateau).
- The northern coastal plain: It is the most important to us because it contains the coastal
aquifer in this area. It occupies the peripheral zone parallel to the present Mediterranean
shoreline and extends in an east-west direction. The inland extension of this plain varies
between a few meters and up to 12 km. The plain slopes generally toward north and exhibits
elevation ranging from + 100 meters above sea level to about the mean sea level or slightly
below. The northern coastal plain exhibits the following landforms:
- Beaches, which occupy a narrow zone lying between the low and high tidal zones. They are
covered with loose carbonate sands and are well developed eastward of the head lands.
- Sand Dune accumulations, which constitute an outstanding land feature at several
localities of the coastal plain such as Eh Qasr, Umm El Rakham, etc., and which cover
portions of the near shore ridge which runs parallel to the Mediterranean Sea. These dunes are
composed of loose oolitic carbonate sands which are carried by the wind from the low-lying
beaches. The foreshore dunes act as water bearing in local areas where their base is low
relative to the level of the prevailing table.
Coastal ridges are distinguished according to their hydrologic response into two groups as
shown in fig 8. The northern foreshore ridge; composed of white friable Oolitic limestone
which is locally covered by loose carbonate sand with an estimated porosity of about 45%.
Figure 8: Diagrammatic sketch showing the different landforms at the northwest coast
The southern inland ridges are composed of moderately hard to hard oolitic limestone (second
porosity) of dark color. Consequently these ridges act as water divides, where the surface
water seeps along the slopes towards the bounding low depression.
In the northwestern coastal zone of Egypt, the exposed geological succession is composed of
Late Tertiary (Neogene) and Quaternary sediments, with maximum thickness of about 200 m.
The concerned succession is as follows (from top to base):
Quaternary (Holocene deposits &Pleistocene sediments), the Quaternary deposits are
distinguished into the following types:
1. Beach deposits; are present in the narrow zone stretching adjacent to the
Mediterranean Sea. They are composed of loose polished snow-white calcareous
oolites of sand size intermixed with quartz sand, shell fragments and recent
foraminifera.
2. Aeolian deposits; these deposits are differentiated into two phases; a coastal phase,
consisting of carbonate sands drifting from the low-lying beach, silt and clay derived
from the inland area; and an inland phase consisting of quartz sands.
3. Recent lagoonal deposits; these deposits are detected in several low-lying spots at
Maryut, Burg El Arab, El Alamein, east El Dabaa, Ras EL Hekma, Matruh, Sidi
Barrani, and El Sallum. They are composed of carbonaceous loam containing high
content of evaporites intermixed with calcareous concretions and oolitic sands.
4. Alluvial deposits; they are mainly accumulated in the coastal plain. Generally these
deposits are composed of quartz sand, silt and clay with abundant carbonate grain in
the north while pebbles and gravels are abundant to the south.
5. White oolitic limestone, constitute the main bulk of the Pleistocene sediments, which
cover the greater part of the coastal zone. The ridges are cross-bedded and composed
of snow white oolitic cemented sand grains. It is characterized by high degree of
primary porosity (total porosity ranges from 25.1 to 54%.
6. Cardium limestone, it rests unconformably over the Marmarica formation and is
overlain either by the pink limestone or oolitic limestone. The cardium limestone
consists of whitish grey oolitic limestone, chalky in appearance and rich with shell
fragments of Cardium edula and other pelecypods, all embedded in calcitic matrix.
7. Pink limestone occupies the top portion of northern escarpment along some of the
drainage lines, which dissect the tableland, this rock type has pale pink to pale brown
color and is composed of carbonate grain quartz sand and fossil allochems embedded
in microcrystalline calcite matrix.
Late Tertiary (Neogene), the Neogene deposits are exposed throughout the area of study and
constitute the major part of the tableland.
Pliocene sediments: have limited exposure along the northwestern coastal zone and have
been encountered in the subsurface where they are concealed beneath younger deposits
(unconformably overlap the Middle Miocene Marmarica Limestone). The Pliocene deposits
consist of an upper creamy limestone bed and a basal brown calcareous sandstone bed.
Miocene Sediments: in the study area, the Miocene sediments are distinguished into two
main rock units; these units are as follows from younger to older:

Marmarica Formation: covers the larger part of the northern plateau of the Western
Desert which is Middle Miocene age. This formation is built up of cavernous
limestone intercalated with clay and marl interbeds.

Moghra Formation: It represents the lower Miocene clastic sediments. In the coastal
area surface exposures of this formation are very rare. It is only exposed at Sallum.
And they are summarized in the following diagram.
Aeolian deposits.
Alluvial deposits.
White Oolitic Limestone.
Cardium Limestone.
Pink Limestone.
Lower Middle
Miocene
Pliocene
Late Tertiary
Types of sediments
Beach deposits.
Pleistocene Holocene
Quaternary
Era
Age
Period
Creamy Limestone
Marmarica Formation
Moghra Formation
- In the study area the groundwater occurs under confined and unconfined conditions.
Groundwater that is suitable for agricultural and domestic uses occurs in shallow unconfined
aquifer or in small semi perched aquifers. These occur in Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, and
recent deposits.
The shallow unconfined aquifer is composed of wadi deposits and Pliocene- Pleistocene
carbonate deposits. The groundwater in these deposits exists under gravitational condition and
it moves by the natural hydraulic gradient northward the Mediterranean Sea.
- The source of water point of shallow unconfined aquifer in this aquifer can be divided into
two main types, (1) Hand- dug wells, are mostly shallow excavations in wadi deposits and
Pliocene- Pleistocene carbonate deposits. The groundwater is abstracted via hoisting by ropes.
Near the wells one usually finds rock basins into which the hoisted water is poured for animal
drinking. The salinity varies between 870 ppm to 9500 ppm. (2) Drilled (rotary well), there
are drilled wells in the study area tapping shallow unconfined aquifer. The penetration depth
of these wells is up to 100m, while the salinity varies between 2000 ppm to 25344 ppm. This
is due to the screen depths are laying near to the sea water interface or in the brackish zone.

Groundwater use of northwest coastal aquifer
Groundwater is used in this aquifer for four main purposes:
(a) Agriculture use, the main source of agriculture water in this area (especially the
western side of it) is rain water, except some wells of suitable salinity degree.
However, the resorts concentrated on the eastern side of this aquifer use groundwater
to irrigate their gardens and trees.
(b) Domestic use, groundwater of this coastal aquifer is the main source for water of
domestic use especially at the western cities like El-Alamien, Marsa Matruh, Sallum
and Sidi Barani. Alexandria, however, is supplied by a water pipe line from the river
Nile.
(c) Drinking use, however, because of the average high salinity of this aquifer (except a
few number of wells), groundwater from this aquifer is a secondary source of
drinking water, but some nomads use water wells for their own consumption and that
of their animals.
(d) Manufacture use, however, there are nearly no manufacture centers in this coast
except in Alexandria that use water from the Nile.
 The land-use and socio-economics of the Northwest coast
Along the Mediterranean coast in northwest area, agricultural activities are poorly
scattered along this coast, farms and planted areas are found scattered especially at the main
coastal cities and resorts. The main field crops are olives, watermelon and figs. People also
breed animals such as sheep, goats and camels. Livestock and poultry activity is concentrated
in El-Hammam and Alexandria but these activities use water from the Nile. This zone hosts
Alexandria, which is the main harbor on the western side of Egypt, and which hosts about
40% of the country’s industrial capacity, in addition to being an important summer resort.
This coastal zone is also considered as an important source for fisheries income.

Identification of main pressures, threats and vulnerability issues of the
Northwest coastal aquifer
The growing population and increasing of the inland tourism activities create a great demand
on groundwater, especially for domestic use, which causes overexploitation of groundwater.
Due to the increasing over pumping in this coastal aquifer, the quality of the groundwater in
this aquifer has been affected by seawater intrusion and the saline level is increasing over
time, especially at the main cities and resorts.
In addition, there is the threat caused by the global rising of sea levels. Since this coast is also
characterized by a relatively narrow width, it is highly affected by global rising of sea levels,
as is the aquifer of this zone.
Another threat comes from pollution. A great numbers of cities and resorts are found along
most of that coast. Some of them drain their sewage water to the sea directly and others,
especially houses, use unlined septic tanks for disposing of their sewage and this leads to the
leaching of pollutants from these poorly constructed septic tanks to the shallow groundwater
aquifer. The presence of high concentrations of both nitrates and Coliform bacteria in water
are considered the principal indicators for water pollution by sewage.
North coastal aquifer of the Nile Delta

General climatic conditions
The Nile Delta region lies within the temperature zone which is a part of the great Desert belt.
It occupies a portion of the arid belt of the Southern Mediterranean region. The desert fringes
on both sides of the delta cause a rise in temperature and affect the changes in daily
temperature. The average temperature in January and July is 12 oC and 31 oC respectively.
Minimum and maximum temperatures are 3 oC and 48 oC respectively. The temperature
become lower in the northern coast of the delta because of the effect of the Mediterranean
Sea. The Nile Delta region becomes quite humid during the summer months.
It is characterized by little rainfall just in winter. The maximum annual rainfall (180 mm) is
observed along the shore line. This amount decreases rapidly and reaches 26 mm at Cairo.

Location and characteristics of the North coastal aquifer of the Delta
The Nile Delta shoreline extends from Alexandria to the west to Port-Said to the east with
total length of about 240 km; it is typically a smooth wide coast. This zone consists of sandy
and silty coasts of greatly varying lateral configurations, depending on where the various old
branches of the Nile have had their outlets. The coastline has two promontories, Rosetta and
Damietta. There are three brackish lakes connected to the sea: Idku, Burullus, and Manzala. In
addition, there are several harbors located on the coast including: Edku, El Gamil and
Burullus fishing harbors, Alexandria, Damietta and Port Said commercial harbors. Two main
drainage canals, Kitchener and Gamasa, discharge their water directly to the sea.
One of the important groundwater aquifers lies beneath the Nile Delta. It is among the largest
reservoirs in the world, with a nearly total capacity of 500 billion m3. The Nile Delta aquifer
is over six million acres in area, with eastern boundaries near the Suez Canal and western
boundaries well into the desert.
Less than two-thirds of Nile Delta area is under cultivation. The uncultivated lands are found
along the sea to the north and the Delta fringes close to the desert. Irrigation is mostly
practiced by surface water from the Nile River.
The Nile Delta aquifer forms an immense and complex groundwater system. It is a leaky
Pleistocene aquifer overlain by a semi-pervious Holocene aquitard (clay cap) and underlain
by an impermeable Miocene aquiclude. The aquifer status (phreatic, confined or leaky) is
defined according the thickness and vertical permeability of the upper semi-pervious layer.
The basal portion of the deltaic deposits rests on a thick clay section, it acts as an aquiclude.
The Quaternary aquifer is composed mainly of Nilotic loose quartz sands interbedded with
thin clay beds (Mit Ghamr Formation of Pleistocene age). It is generally capped by relatively
thin characteristic muddy cap beds (Bilqas Formation of Holocene age). The maximum
thickness of Bilqas Formation is 71 m in the north and 77 m in the east, decreasing gradually
towards the south. At the northern fringes of the Delta, the sediments forming the aquifer are
deposited under fluvio-marine environment and are frequently affected by salt water
intrusion. Groundwater exists at shallow depths of about 1 to 1.5 m below the ground surface.
Of these strata, the deltaic deposits (200-500m thick) which belong to the Pleistocene
constitute the bulk main aquifer. These are dominated by unconsolidated coarse sands and
gravel (with occasional clay lenses). The top boundary of the deltaic deposits, which acts as a
cap for the aquifer is composed of semi-pervious clay and silt layers. The clay cap is
intermeshing with the aquifer near the Mediterranean Sea. Only along the Mediterranean
shore, the thickness of the clay cap may reach 70 m as shown in (fig 9), which is a
hydrological cross section from north to south in the Nile Delta and showing the lithological
formations that make up the aquifer and also the framework groundwater regime.
The north Nile Delta aquifer has a nearly area of 10,000 km2, its depth at the Mediterranean
Sea varies from one point to other and may reach 1000 m in some locations. In general the
thickness of the Pleistocene aquifer increases toward the Mediterranean Sea and decreases
gradually to the south. Also, this thickness decreases gradually to the east and to the west.
Seepage out of the Nile River, canals and drains and surplus of irrigation lines are the main
sources of aquifer recharge. It may also be recharged, though nominally, by northward flow
from the Nile Valley aquifer. On the other hand, the aquifer loses some of its water to the
Mediterranean Sea and to the drainage system in the northern part of the Delta.
The infiltration velocity of irrigation water ranges from 0.01 m/day in the north to more than
6 m/day in the south of the Nile Delta. Replenishment from the underlying sands and gravel
aquifer through the upward leakage is also possible. The hydraulic parameters of this leaky
aquifer vary greatly according to the change in lithology. The transmissivity (T) range is
5000-25,000 m2/day in northern parts of the delta near the Sea, decreasing to values of 500010,000 m2/day in the southern parts, whereas the hydraulic conductivity (K) ranges from 120
m/day in the southern parts to 50 m/day in the northern parts. The storage coefficient (S) of
the aquifer ranges from 1 x 10-3 in the southern parts to 9 x 10-4 in the northern parts. Salinity
levels range from less than 1500 ppm at the south to nearly 5000 ppm at the northern coastal
aquifer of the Delta. The direction of groundwater flow is from south of the delta towards the
north, northwest and northeast.
Figure 9: Hydrogeological cross section from south to north in the Nile Delta showing
the formations and its framework groundwater regime

Groundwater use of the North coastal aquifer of the Delta
Pumping activities from different governorates are monitored by Research Institute for
Groundwater (RIGW) in Egypt. According to the well inventory in 1992, the total pumping
from Nile Delta was estimated as 1.92 billion m3/year. The current pumping for various uses
was estimated as 4 billion m3/year. Water from this aquifer is used for four main purposes:
(a) Agriculture use, which is the main use of the groundwater in this aquifer and
representing about 75% of the aquifer’s total use, especially in areas where surface
water canals are not supplying a sufficient amount of water, namely in areas
concentrated at the northwestern and northeastern fringes of the Nile delta.
(b) Domestic use; groundwater of this coastal aquifer is also a necessary source for water
of domestic use, especially in villages that lack an adequate number of surface water
canals and also for the activities of farmers.
(c) Drinking use; despite the presence of surface water canals in most of the delta areas,
groundwater is used for drinking purposes in most of the delta region, since water
from wells has fewer solid impurities than surface water.
Furthermore, many of the farmers living in this region (especially in its northern
zone) use groundwater to provide drinking water for their animals and poultry.
(e) Manufacture use; there are many manufacturing centers along the whole Nile delta
region and especially at the northern coast. Although many of these manufacturing
facilities depend on surface water as their main source of water, others depend on
groundwater as a main or complementary source of water.
 The land-use and socio-economics in North coastal aquifer of the Delta
Along the entire Nile Delta (except some northern areas), agriculture is the main economic
activity; farms and planted areas are found throughout all Nile Delta governorates. The main
field crops are wheat, cotton, corn, sugarcane, fruit and vegetables, fodder, and rice. Other
activities include the cultivation of flowers and ornamental plants.
Besides agriculture, farmers of this territory widely breed livestock and poultry for meat and
dairy. This coastal zone is also considered as an important source for fisheries income.
For the industrial sector, the Nile Delta is considered as a significant area, where we find
chemical industries (fertilizers, pesticides, pharmaceutical, etc.), steel industries, clothes and
textiles, food industries and many more industrial activities.
One of the most important economic activities found in the Nile Delta, and especially its
northern zone, is the hydrocarbons and petroleum industry, including oil and natural gas
production fields and industries.

Identification of main pressures, threats and vulnerability issues of the North
coastal aquifer of the Delta
The growth of the population in the Nile Delta and hence, the increase in human, agricultural,
and industrial activities, has led to several important problems, such as increasing demand for
freshwater and also an increasing rate of pollution. This increase in demand for freshwater is
met by intensive pumping of fresh groundwater, causing the subsequent lowering of the
piezometric heads and upsetting the dynamic balance between fresh and saline water bodies
in the Nile Delta aquifer. As with many other coastal aquifers, this aquifer has experienced
seawater intrusion, which represents a major barrier to its exploitation.
Salt water intrusion and its potential impacts on groundwater quality in the coastal zone
cannot be overlooked, especially in low land areas along the Mediterranean coast of Egypt. In
addition, water logging and water bogging problems are expected to exacerbate soil
salinization which will lead to deterioration of crop quality and productivity. This will in turn
lead to increasing health problems and loss of tourism. This phenomenon is considered of
utmost importance and warrants full investigation as it may lead to mass emigration.
Observations confirm that sea levels are already rising in the Nile delta due to a combination
of factors including coastal subsidence and reduced sediment loads due to the construction of
the High Aswan Dam upstream. The impacts of sea level rise on the Nile delta aquifer, such
as coastal inundation or seawater intrusion, are consistent with the results of global
vulnerability assessments of coastal areas. Land subsidence in the Delta is currently estimated
at 1-5 mm/year (El Fishawi and Fanos, 1989).
The IPCC’s Fourth Assessment Report (2007) posits an upper boundary for global sealevel rise by 2100 of 0.59 centimeters, but that does not include ice-sheet dynamics. In the
nearest term of the coming decade and in the absence of adaptive action, 3.3% of total land
area of the Nile Delta will be lost to the sea, including the submersion of approximately 16
km2 of valuable land that is currently cultivated. In addition to the relative sea level rise
(RSLR) and current subsidence trends, Egypt’s Mediterranean coast and the Nile Delta
aquifer have been identified as highly vulnerable to abrupt SLR.
Other threats in this aquifer include its contamination by the discharge of human waste
(therefore impacting drinking supplies) and also the massive wasting of water that is inherent
to prevailing agricultural practices. The geo-environmental status of Nile Delta in the last few
decades had been changed adversely, due to natural and anthropogenic effects, in addition to
over population.
To the north of the Nile Delta, the confined Pleistocene aquifer is less vulnerable to pollution
from the direct recharge zone because surface water and contaminants cannot percolate to the
water table. If contamination does occur, however, it is often difficult to remedy because
confined aquifers are usually deep and the number of points where contaminated water may
be pumped out is limited.
Coastal aquifer of North Sinai

General climatic conditions
The air temperature in the northern coast of Sinai is generally higher than that of the inland
area of the Peninsula. Average temperature decreases during the winter reaching its minimum
value in January and increasing to its maximum value in August during summer.
The study area is characterized by cold winters. The average temperature is 13 degrees
centigrade at El-Arish.
In summer, the temperature increases to 26 degrees centigrade as the mean value at El- Arish.
The mean maximum temperature varies between 29.9 and 31.1 degrees centigrade. Spring is
characterized by moderate temperatures of about 20 degrees centigrade with hot Khamsin
(dusty winds) periods when the air temperature sometimes rises above 40 degrees centigrade.
The mean minimum temperature during this season is about 13 degrees centigrade while the
mean maximum temperature is 26 degrees centigrade.
Autumn is characterized by moderate temperatures similar to spring but slightly lower than
summer. The temperature during September normally ranges from 15 degrees centigrade at
midnight to 28 degrees centigrade at midday.
Rainfall has been a serious problem in this coastal area. The highest annual rainfall of 300
mm is observed in Rafah area, the most eastern side of this coastal aquifer. However, more
than 80% of the study area receives an annual rainfall of less than 180 mm. The problem of
this area is that the rainfall events vary widely, so that the area sometimes is subjected to
either heavy drought or flooding.

Location and characteristics of North Sinai Coastal Aquifer
The Sinai Peninsula lies in the most eastern part of Egypt, and it takes on the form of a
triangle with its base in the north extending along the shore of the Mediterranean Sea starting
from Port Fouad in the west to Rafah in the east for a distance of 200 km and its width varies
between 5 km at the east (Rafah) to 40 km at the west (Port Fouad). The apex of the triangle
lies in the extreme south at Ras Mohamed.
Sinai's total area is 61,000 km2, while the area of the Mediterranean coastal aquifer is of about
2,900 km2. This triangle slopes from the south at St Katherine of elevation 2200 m over sea
level to the north of zero level over the Mediterranean Sea.
- The Quaternary deposits (sand, gravel & calcareous sandstone) and the Holocene-recent
sand dunes are the main aquifers extending along the Mediterranean from Rafah due East to
Bir El Abd and from Bir El Abd to El Qantara due West respectively as in geological map of
Sinai (fig 10). The Quaternary aquifer is well defined at two areas along the north Sinai coast,
first, the area from Rafah to El Shiekh Zuwyied and the second is the delta wadi El Arish. The
second aquifer is well define at the area from Bir El Abd to Rommana due west. The three
areas have different hydrogeological conditions and depositional environment.
- The Quaternary sediments cover the entire coastal aquifer parts where the thickness of the
wadi deposits increase while they decrease in the southern part and the tertiary sediments
began to appear and represented by the carbonate rocks underlain the Quaternary sediments.
The Quaternary aquifer in the area of study consists of three water-bearing formations
(zones); these are from top to bottom as follows:
Sand dunes Zone: Coastal sand dunes run parallel to the Mediterranean Sea and extend
inland to a distance ranging from 2 to 10 km, and are composed of detrital sand ranging in
size from fine- to medium-grained sand. Its width increasing towards the east, and decreasing
towards the west. These sand dunes are considered the main source of recharge and at the
same time, the main passage of the surface runoff of the wadis main stream that originate
from southern and eastern areas and move toward the north to feed the groundwater aquifer.
The thickness of these sediments varies from 5 to 30m with total dissolved solids ranging
from 500 to 1500 ppm. This aquifereous zone is considered the main source of drinking water
in the area and is also used in irrigation, especially during winter season by means of trenches.
Figure 10: Geological map of Sinai
Old Beach Aquifer Zone: These deposits tapping the upper Pleistocene and composed of
sand ranging in size from fine to coarse grained intercalated with clay and silt in parts, the
thickness of these deposits varying from 30 to 40 m, the water of this zone is more saline than
the upper one which ranging from 1500 to 2500 ppm, these deposits extend underneath the
sand dunes along the coastal plain and extends south ward some 7 to 10 km. The groundwater
of this zone is generally unconfined in most areas, but is confined in other parts due to the
presence of separated lenses of clay.
A number of sandy hills are found to the south of the old beach deposits, the elevation of
these sandy hills reach to about 50-70 m above mean sea level, also salty sediments were
found in the form of Sabkhas such as El-Sheikh Zuwyied Sabkha, it takes an east-west
direction with about 3 km long, 260 m wide and between 3-4 m above mean sea level, the
salinity of these Sabkhas increases during summer season as a result of evaporation.
Calcareous Sandstone Aquifer Zone: This zone is considered the main aquifer in the area
that extends eastward to Ghaza and westward to El-Arish, it consists of calcareous sandstone
containing shell fragments which is called kurkar and locally as El-Fajra. The thickness of
this zone ranges from 5 to 25 m and reaches to about 60 m in some places, the thickness
decreasing toward the south and completely disappearing at wadi El- Azariq area where it was
found as a scattered lenses, it refers to the lower Pleistocene and overlain old beach deposits.
The calcareous sandstone is separated by impervious clay layers in parts and semi-permeable
in others, hence this aquifer zone is confined in the first one and semi-confined in the other.
These clayey layers may affect on the hydraulic parameters according to the thickness and
location from area to another, the thickness of this clay layer increases toward the east. The
calcareous sandstone sediment completely disappears to the south of Lehffen fault.
The rainfall is the main source of recharge to these aquifers in addition to the return irrigation
and domestic water. The rainfall precipitation ranges from 60mm/y due west at Qantarah to
about 300mm/y due east at Rafah.
A survey has been carried out (2004) to evaluate the volume of water extracted per year from
the sand/gravel and Kurkar aquifers. The number of wells tapping the two aquifers has
increased dramatically in the last twenty years. It was found that the current total number of
wells tapping the Sand/Gravel aquifer is 980, while only 92 wells are tapping the Kurkar
formation. There a high density of number of wells in the coastal area where it reaches its
maximum of 32 wells per 500 x 500m. However, the majority of well density has a range of 1
to 5 well per 500 x 500m. Total evaluated volume of water extracted from the Sand/Gravel
aquifer in (2004) is approximately 62.361 x 106 m3. This represents about 90% of the total
extraction, where volume of water extracted from the Kurkar layer in (2004) is about 6.921 x
106 m3. This gives a total volume of extracted water of 69.282 x 106 m3.

Groundwater use of coastal aquifer
Groundwater is used in this aquifer for four main purposes:
(a) Agriculture use, which is the main use of the groundwater in this aquifer, representing
more than 70% of its use. Currently, there are more than 1700 water wells for
agricultural use along the entire coast.
(b) Domestic use; groundwater from this coastal aquifer is also a necessary source of
water for domestic use, especially in the main cities like El-Arish, Shekh Zowaied,
Rafah and Ber El-Abd. For example, more than 88 wells were drilled at wadi ElArish coastal aquifer for use by the people of El-Arish and Al-Masaeed.
(c) Drinking use; before 1990, groundwater was the main source of drinking water in the
entire northern coast of Sinai, but in the last two decades two fresh water pipe lines
(from the Nile) were constructed beginning from Port Saied and ending at Rafah.
Some Bedouin communities still use some water wells for their own drinking
purposes and that of their animals.
(f) Manufacturing use; although there are nearly no manufacturing centers along the
north coast of Sinai except small ones, there is one manufacturing center located 50
km south of El-Arish city at a place called Baghdad. And although they are not
located in the coastal zone, their water supply comes from the coastal aquifer by a
number of wells that are found in the El-Arish area and also by a pumping station is
used to pump the groundwater amount needed to fulfill their water need.
 The land-use and socio-economics of the North Sinai coastal aquifer
Agriculture is the main economic activity along the entire Mediterranean coast in north Sinai;
farms and planted areas are found scattered throughout the area, especially at the main coastal
cities like El-Arish, Shekh Zowaied, Rafah and Ber El-Abd. The main field crops are olives,
water melon, peaches and almonds. The people of Sinai also breed animals such as sheep,
goats and camels. Most of the industrial animal husbandry activities are also concentrated in
the northern coastal zone. It is also considered an important source for fisheries income.

Identification of main pressures, threats and vulnerability issues of the North
Sinai coastal aquifer
Groundwater is still the main water supply for both drinking and domestic purposes in this
area. Therefore, the coastal cities depend on the fresh shallow groundwater that is produced
from Quaternary aquifers. The growing population and increasing industrial and agricultural
activities create a large demand, causing overexploitation and salt water intrusion.
As a result of the over pumping in this coastal aquifer, the static groundwater level has
decreased over time, and it appears that in the Wadi El-Arish area, for example, the static
level has decreased by more than 5 m over the last few years.
Furthermore, the quality of the groundwater in this aquifer had been affected by over
pumping. The aquifer at Rafah-El shiekh Zuwyied has a good salinity level (500 - 700 ppm)
especially at the most north eastern part due to the high rate of rainfall, but the salinity level is
increasing over time, and has reached 2000 ppm in some farms. The increase in salinity
levels to the west along the shore line is due to sea water intrusion at El Shiekh Zuwyied,
where salinity levels may reach 3000 ppm. To the south, these levels may climb to 7000
ppm, where water is pumped from the calcareous sandstone layer (kurkar), which, because of
its deposition in marine environment, demonstrates higher salinity levels. The aquifer of the
delta wadi El Arish has different conditions than those of Rafah, especially with respect to
water quality. High salinity levels (>7000 ppm) occur at the mouth of the delta, while low
salinity levels (<2500 ppm) occur at the southern and southeastern parts of the delta. In
general, increasing salinity levels have been detected at El-Arish coastal zone; for example,
salinity levels ranged from about 2000 mg/l (initial salinity, just after drilling, year 1990) to
about 9824 mg/l (year 2003) and then jumped to 11600 mg/l (actual salinity, year 2006). In
addition, intensive pumping creates a huge cone of depression and results in saltwater
intrusion by upleaking from lower saline water (Miocene aquifer).
Pollution is another threat to this aquifer. A significant number of the city and villages houses
use unlined septic tanks for disposal of their sewage.
Leaching of pollutants from poorly constructed septic tanks to the shallow groundwater is in
most cases form a permanent source of ground water pollution in this coastal aquifer. The
presence of high concentrations of both nitrates and Coliform bacteria (especially Fecal
Coliform) in water are considered the principal indicators for water pollution by sewage.
3- Part 2: Analytical
Northern Coastal aquifer of Western Desert (North West Coast Aquifer)

Assessment of the situation of coastal aquifer by type of pressure (salt water
intrusion, pollution and over pumping)
The assessment and management of the North-West coastal aquifer depends on the periodic
measurement of parameters such as water level and the groundwater extraction, however, no
reliable data is available on groundwater potential or on current usage. The present view is
based on estimations from possible recharge to groundwater using available rainfall data. In
this region, there have been scattered communities that have relied on rainwater and
groundwater to satisfy their water needs.
The presence of these aquifers along the sea coast puts them at risk for seawater intrusion.
Therefore, caution needs to be exercised when extracting groundwater to avoid the sea water
intrusion in these different coastal aquifers.
This aquifer is in a critical situation and should be closely monitored for excessive
groundwater exploitation and pollution.
It is highly recommended to give attention to the region due to its very special characteristics.
This should include protection from flood risks and desalination of groundwater, taking into
consideration the entire catchment of wadis and suitable development technologies.

Trends and projections related to the pressure/risks
Estimation of groundwater potential is an important step that should be carried out carefully
prior to planning groundwater development. However, potential may be affected (positively
or negatively) by the applied management technology and constraints / issues facing
groundwater use and allocation. An effort is made in this section to classify development
technologies and major issues facing groundwater development and management. The coastal
aquifer systems, although limited in extent, consists a very important source of water to
coastal communities especially when proper technologies are applied (e.g. rainwater
harvesting, skimming). A major issue is the risk of salinization. Desalination is also an
important technology especially for drinking and industrial water supply.
North coastal aquifer of the Nile Delta

Assessment of the situation of coastal aquifer by type of pressure (salt water
intrusion, pollution and over pumping)
The trends and magnitude of seawater intrusion in this aquifer could be used as a guide for
setting-up an efficient future management and remediation policy for controlling the
land/water use pattern in this vital area of Egypt
The shape and degree of the seawater intrusion in this coastal aquifer depend on several
factors. Some of these factors are natural and cannot be controlled while others are manmade
and could, thus, be managed.
The Nile Delta aquifer is severely affected by the problem of saltwater intrusion from the
Mediterranean Sea, causing serious environmental impacts. Groundwater resources should
thus be assessed, managed and developed carefully.
The assessment and management of these aquifers depends on the periodic measurement of
parameters such as water level and the groundwater extraction. The presence of these aquifers
along the sea coast puts them at risk for seawater intrusion.
Agrawalia et al., 2004 surveyed specific large economic centers of Alexandria, Rosetta and
Port Said and obtained quantitative estimates of vulnerable areas and the expected loss of
employment in case of no action. They concluded that the Nile Delta coastal zone is highly
vulnerable to the impacts of sea level rise through direct inundation and salt water intrusion.
Low elevation coastal zones constitute high risk areas due to potential damage of sea
protection from earthquakes or human activities.

Trends and projections related to the pressure/risks
Since the construction of the Aswan High Dam in 1969, nearly all of the sediments carried
by the river are trapped behind the dam. This sediment trapping has resulted in a sharp
decrease in sediment supply to the delta. Coastal erosion, wetland loss and saltwater intrusion
into Nile Delta’s aquifers have all been attributed to the decreased sediment input and
associated subsidence. Coastal erosion rates close to the Rosetta and Damietta promontories
range from 10 to more than 100 m/year. In addition to damming, a dense network of irrigation
and drainage canals in the delta has trapped much of the remaining sediment, thus preventing
it from reaching the coastline.
Other changes also include the contraction of fertile agricultural areas, conversion of nonagricultural areas to agricultural ones (rehabilitation or reclamation), deterioration of
agricultural areas, and disruption of the hydrological and hydrogeological regimes, which
negatively impacted the water quality of the aquifer. This is primarily through groundwater
consumption, diversion of the river water for irrigation, discharge of irrigation waste water
into the river channels and in situ water use within the river channels.
Coastal aquifer of North Sinai
Part 2: Analytical
 Assessment of the situation of coastal aquifer by type of pressure (salt water
intrusion, pollution and over pumping)
The assessment and management of these aquifers depends on the periodic measurement of
parameters such as water level and the groundwater extraction. The presence of these aquifers
along the sea coast puts them at risk for seawater intrusion.
The aquifer is in a critical situation and should closely monitored for excessive groundwater
exploitation, and should be the subject of good management techniques.
Furthermore,
alternative sources of freshwater, especially drinking and domestic water should be sought in
the form of water from the Nile and El Salam canal or desalinization of sea water.

Trends and projections related to the pressure/risks
The Sinai national project includes the extension of the El-Salam irrigation canal into Sinai to
irrigate 400,000 feddan. The canal receives its water from the EL-Sir and Hadous drains
(drainage water) and is mixed with Nile water (fresh) at a ratio of 2:1 to decrease the salinity
and dilution of drainage water. The canal currently reaches Bir EL-Abd and passes through
the dune aquifer. The groundwater environmental system in this area will be changed as a
result of the presence of this canal and also from changes in irrigation systems and crop
rotation patterns. The chemical and biological characteristics will be changed due to the
infiltrated water from irrigation water. The Mediterranean Sea and El Bardaweil Lake in the
north will experience biodiversity loss as a result of the changes in the groundwater
flow regime. Environmental studies should be made before compellation of this canal to
protect and avoid any negative impacts.
4- Part 3: Recommendations
Northern Coastal aquifer of Western Desert (North West Coast Aquifer)

Scientific recommendations (research, studies, data collection and tools)
More attention has to be drawn to the existing groundwater to document and understand the
general features of the groundwater in this coastal area by the following:
1- Concentrated geomorphologic studies on the pilot area are very important.
2- Updating of existing well information, by making periodic surveys and well
inventories every year. Analysis of data obtained from these wells is very important
in understanding the aquifer parameters and capacity.
3- Drilling observation wells in deferent zone to determine freshwater – seawater
interface, thickness of the water bearing formation and the hydraulic parameters.
4- Continuation of periodic measurement of water levels and collection of water samples
for chemical analysis. Such data should be helpful in updating data with regards to
quantity and quality of groundwater aquifers.
5- Undertaking a complete hydrogeological study on the coastal sand dunes aquifer to
quantify its capacity and document its properties because it is the most suitable
aquifer for agriculture development in this coastal area.
6- Applying new tools for studying sea water intrusion, such as electromagnetic
geophysical tools. Other tools for consideration include those for radon detection for
studying groundwater - surface water interaction.

Management recommendations (technical and infrastructures)
1- Extend the sanitation network over all coastal zone cities and resorts, also to
construct treatment stations for the waste water to prevent the pollution of the aquifer.
2- Redistribution of the random earth dams that are constructed by the local inhabitants
and construction of more surface dams to optimize the use of the surface water coming
from rainfall.
3- Construction of dikes or diversion structures to improve the distribution of the runoff
on usable soil, which will also increase groundwater recharge and reduce losses to sea.

Policy recommendations (for decision-makers)
1- It is of the utmost importance to study and take action to overcome the problem of sea
water rising and to decrease its effect on this coastal zone.
2- Construction of desalinization stations of sea water to be used in the summer resorts.
3- Further developments in the study area by drilling production wells after the
determination of safe yield in each locality of the aquifer, by taking in consideration
the level of the freshwater – seawater interface to prevent the seawater intrusion.
4- Using the authority of law and by applying legal mechanisms to penalize any
drainage of sewage water to the sea and the aquifer.
North coastal aquifer of the Nile Delta

Scientific recommendations (research, studies, data collection and tools)
More attention should be drawn to the existing groundwater to document and understand the
general features of the groundwater in this coastal area in a more practical manner by the
following:
1- Updating of the existing well information, by making periodic surveys and well
inventories every year.
2- Analysis of data obtained from these wells, such as water levels and their fluctuations
over time as a result of pumping, to prevent further decrease in the water level.
3- Use of isotope technology analysis to periodically test for seawater intrusion.
4- A serious and urgent study should be undertaken to study the potential solutions to
overcome Sea Level Rising and the reduction of the northern coast by means of using
geological and engineering aspects.
5- A serious and urgent study should be undertaken to try to reduce the groundwater
pumping rate to its minimum requirements, thereby increasing the pressure of fresh
groundwater on the seawater intruded bodies in the aquifer and also to help in decreasing
of the Nile Delta land subsidence and the coastal erosion by seawater.
6- An urgent study is needed to consider the creation of new artificial recharge projects and
the further development of existing ones.
7- Applying new tools for studying sea water intrusion, such as electromagnetic geophysical
tools. Other tools for consideration include those for radon detection for studying
groundwater - surface water interaction.
8- Upgrading periodically the different maps concerning groundwater aquifer in this
important coastal aquifer.

Management recommendations (technical and infrastructures)
1- Increasing and developing the monitoring network along this coastal aquifer is urgently
required.
2- Create an integrated data base that compiles the available information for the whole
region.
3- Assessment of the potential impacts of risks and formulation of mitigation measures to
protect the coastal aquifer through numerical modelling.
4- Development of the sanitation network throughout the Nile Delta cities and construction
of treatment station for the waste water to prevent the pollution of the aquifer.
5- Construction of more sea barriers to prevent more coastal erosion especially in the North
Delta coasts.

Policy recommendations (for decision-makers)
1- Development of surface water canals and irrigation systems to satisfy agricultural needs
and to decrease the use of groundwater of this aquifer.
2- Increase awareness for decision makers on the importance of protection of coastal
aquifers in the coastal zones in the Mediterranean countries.
3- To quickly operationalize artificial recharge projects in North and South of the Nile Delta.
4- Establish a new law system to prevent further drilling of wells by using the authority of
law and by applying legal penalties.
5- Follow legal institutions and policy aspects at national and regional level.
6- It is utmost importance to determine a safe yield in each locality of the aquifer to control
the extraction amount of groundwater to prevent further decreases in the water level of
the aquifer.
7- Capacity building of institutions and integrated cooperation between the various
organizations related to groundwater in coastal zone at national and regional level.
Coastal aquifer of North Sinai

Scientific recommendations (research, studies, data collection and tools)
More attention should be drawn to the existing groundwater to document and understand the
general features of it in this coastal area in a more practical manner by the following:
9- Updating of existing well information, by making periodic surveys and well inventories
every year.
10- Analysis of data obtained from these wells, such as water levels and their fluctuations
over time as a result of pumping, to prevent further decrease of the water level.
11- Attention should be paid to the underlying Tertiary aquifers in the coastal aquifer because
they may supply groundwater to this aquifer.
12- Use C-14 dating of selected groundwater samples to investigate the recharge system of
this coastal aquifer.
13- Water quality analysis of selected samples should be observed continuously to examine
the influence of the existing well field on the groundwater development.
14- Determination of hydrological mechanisms and properties of the aquifer in the coastal
sand dunes is urgent.
15- Applying new tools for studying sea water intrusion, such as electromagnetic geophysical
tools.
Other tools for consideration include those for radon detection for studying
groundwater - surface water interaction.
16- Upgrading periodically the different maps concerning groundwater aquifer in this
important coastal aquifer.

Management recommendations (technical and infrastructures)
6- Establishment of a monitoring network for the coastal aquifer is urgently required.
7- Development of the sanitation network throughout the coastal zone of north Sinai cities
and to construct treatment station for the waste water to prevent aquifer pollution.
8- Use new water sources in drinking, domestic, industrial and agricultural purposes.
9- Construction of more surface dams to optimize the use of the surface water coming from
flash floods and rain fall.

Policy recommendations (for decision-makers)
8- Complete the project of El Salam canal to provide water from the Nile as a future
additional source of water (as an alternative to groundwater) to fulfill agricultural needs.
9- Construction of desalinization stations of sea water to be used in drinking and industrial
purposes.
10- Establish a new law system to prevent further drilling of wells by using the authority of
law and by applying legal penalties.
11- It is utmost importance to determine a safe yield in each locality of the aquifer to control
the extraction amount of groundwater to prevent further decrease in the water level.
Annex 1 (Case studies)
1- Supplying Baghdad Industrial Area by Groundwater
From the Coastal Aquifer of Wadi El-Arish Delta
In North Sinai
2-Sea level rise and salt water intrusion (Ras El Bar)
Introduction
One future plan for development is to create an industrial area in Baghdad city in central
Sinai. This area has water supply from a water line running from a water pumping station at
Arish airport to Baghdad with a capacity of 8000 m3/day. This amount of water is extracted
through 8 wells drilled in the Valley (Wadi) El Arish Delta, which is considered as a coastal
Aquifer on the Mediterranean Sea. Due to the increasing demands from industrial activities in
the region, this quantity of water is not sufficient; an additional 7000 m3/day will be needed to
satisfy this need, bringing the total estimated capacity to 15,000 m3/day.
Therefore, a comprehensive study is required to determine the possibility of drilling more
wells in wadi El-Arish aquifer area and to search for a water source for this area. The study
should also consider the impact of these wells (in the case of drilling) on the coastal aquifer
potentiality.
Location of the Study area
The study area is in the northern part of Sinai, at the Delta of wadi El-Arish on the
Mediterranean Sea between latitudes 31 00 00 and 31 08 00 and between longitudes 33 48 00
and 33 53 00 and it extends from Lehfen well at the south to the Mediterranean sea at the
north, and from the Masaid town at the west to El Kharoba at the west by a nearly total area
of 430 Km3 as shown in (fig 11).
Mediterranean Sea
Arish
City
Figure 11: Location of the study Area
Climate
The climate is one of the most important hydrogeological factors for this area, where rain fall
is the main source for the recharge of the coastal aquifer especially the Quaternary aquifer in
this area.
The study area is characterized by cold winters with an average temperature of 13 °C at ElArish area. In the summer, the average temperature is 26 °C at the El Arish area.
The highest rate of rainfall over the area was 300 mm per year, but this high rate was recorded
in a limited area, while the average rainfall in 80% of the study area was recorded at 180 mm
per year; this is explained by the continental climate dominate the study area.
Aquifers in the study area
From the geological setting of this area, it is clear that the formations containing groundwater
aquifers in the study area belong to the Quaternary age. These aquifers extend along the
whole Mediterranean coastal zone in North Sinai. In the study area, they extend for 30 km in
the area of El Arish to Rafah, by widths ranging between 5 and 10 km, with thickness ranges
between 80 to 100 meters. There are three Quaternary aquifers and they are:
1- Sand dune aquifer: It is an unconfined aquifer consisting mainly of sand dunes and old
beach sands, with a thickness ranging between 20 to 40 m. Its water salinity ranges between
1000 to 1500 ppm.
This aquifer is not found with a considerable extent in the northern area of Wadi El-Arish
Delta because of the urban extent there. However, at Rafah area, it is an important aquifer for
seasonal agriculture. Generally, wells in this aquifer are dry due to over pumping.
2- Gravel Aquifer: It is an unconfined aquifer. The aquifer thickness varies between a few
meters to more than 45 m; it extends south to 10 km in Wadi El Arish Delta. The residents of
the city of El Arish in the past rely on the water of this aquifer in drinking water due to the
low degree of salinity. However, all wells in this aquifer are dry now.
3- Kurkar aquifer: This aquifer is unconfined and confined in some areas; it consists of
calcareous sandstone, with thickness ranges between 10 to 50 meters. Salinity of this aquifer
(1700 to over than 4,500 ppm) is higher than that of the other two aquifers, as a result of its
lithology and the hydraulic connection between this aquifer with sea water. The level of
salinity is increasing as a result of seawater intrusion because of the over pumping.
- Groundwater wells in the study area
As a result of increasing demand for fresh water in Wadi El Arish, the number of drilled
productive wells had reached over 600. The number of wells had increased just from one well
in 1926 to 10 wells in 1940, then rose to 27 wells in 1960 and finally increased to 615 wells
year 2008. Note that the number of wells of the government does not exceed 127 wells, and
that the total numbers of people's wells are 488; these are well-distributed and most of them
are unlicensed and drilled unofficially without regard to the aquifer and its sustainable
pumping rates.
Recharge and pumping rates in Delta Wadi El-Arish
There are three primary sources of recharge to this aquifer and they are:
1) The direct recharge from rain fall: we can roughly calculate the value of daily
recharge; based on the area of the Delta (430 km2) and the average rate of rainfall so it has
been found that the average amount of rain that falls on the Delta and Wadi El Arish
estimated at around 5.7 million m3/year and the rate of recharge will not be more than
50% of the amount of water equivalent to 2.85 million m3/year or 7800 m3/day.
2) Surface recharge by flood water: sometimes flash floods happen on wadi El-Arish and
the rate of recharge had been calculated as 9800 m3/year, but that was before year 1986,
prior to the construction of Al Raofah dam but now this rate is much less than that.
3) Recharge by vertical flow from deeper aquifers: this idea was brought by
Geophzica Company (1963); depending on the temperature of the water in the
wells during the winter was 24 °C while the air temperature is 20 °C. The amount
of recharge had been calculated (1980) as a rate 9800 m3/day
In (1956) Pavr has calculate the average daily recharge rate to be 25,000 m3/day; then Dams
and Moor calculated that rate again and it was 30,000 m3/day; and finally after the
construction of Al Raofah dam it is calculated as 20,000 m3/day.
- Pumping rates in Wadi El-Arish Delta: Due to the steady increase of wells in Wadi ElArish Delta, the pumping rate also increased greatly over time, reaching up to 90,000 m3/day
in 2008, which means triple times the recharge rate.
Water quality and drawdown of the static water level
Due to the over pumping rates in Wadi El-Arish Delta, the static water level has decreased
and also the water quality has decreased (increasing of TDS), four areas had been taken as a
guide as follows:

First area: located south in Wadi El-Arish Delta, where water levels range from (+1 m) to
(+1.5 m) and TDS ranges between 2000 to 2500 ppm.

Second area: located in the north around the town of El Arish itself, where water levels
range from (-0.5 m) to (-2.5 m) and TDS ranges between 3000 to 3500 ppm.

Third area: located in east and central of Wadi El Arish Delta, where water levels range
from (-0.5 m) to (-5 m) and TDS ranges between 3500 to 6000 ppm.

Fourth area: located north Wadi El Arish Delta near the coast and characterized by
presence of sand dunes, where water levels range from (-0.5 m) to (+1 m), while TDS
ranges between 4000 to 5800 ppm.
Results of the study
1- It is not advisable to increase the pumping rate of the 8 drilled wells that presently supply
Baghdad area by groundwater from 8000 m3/day to 15,000 m3/day.
2- It is not advisable to drill any more wells in Wadi El-Arish Delta.
3 - In the case of drilling any new wells, this will cause steady increase in salinity over 6000
ppm and also the decrease of pumping rate over time. That is not safe in industrial
development, because sustainable economic development cannot depend on a non-renewable
resource.
Recommendations
Based on the above results, it is recommended not to drill any more wells in Wadi El Arish
Delta, and to find the possible solutions to provide Baghdad industrial area by additional
source of water. It is recommended to choose one of the following solutions:
1 - Study the possibility of drilling a field of deep water wells in Baghdad area itself, with
depth of wells ranges from 400 m to 1000 m, to get the benefit of the the deep carbonate
aquifer, and deeper sandstone aquifer of Malha formation (equivalent to Nubian aquifer).
2 – To construct one or more desalination plants of sea water by a suitable capacity in ElArish area to supply the industrial area in Baghdad for its water needs.
3 – To complete the construction of water pipe line of Gifgafa. This pipe line was supposed to
start from Ismailiah governorate from Sarabium Canal then passing in Technology Valley
(western North Sinai) and then to the Gifgafa area. We must study the possibility of extending
this water pipe line to the Industrial area in Baghdad to supply it by an appropriate quantity of
water enough to meet the industrial needs of the area.
Case Study 2:
Sea level rise and salt water intrusion (Ras El Bar)
Study area considered one of the most vulnerable areas to sea level rise, the land subsidence is
high in this part of the Nile Delta. It lies between a stretch from Ras El Bar and Gamasa,
average width of 15 Km from the shore line.
The study aimed to fulfill the following aspects:
In-depth investigations of the saltwater/ freshwater interface behavior with different Sea evel
Rise, SWL scenarios.
Feasibility study of monitoring system for regular observation of groundwater levels/ quality
(with special reference to salinity concentration), in order to record changes Sea Level Rise.
Vulnerability assessment; and environmental, economical and technical studies, for
groundwater within the study area due to SLR scenarios
Remarks on the output results for different scenarios
According to the sensitivity analysis, the effect of sea level rise will affect the groundwater
aquifer system in the shallow layers of the aquifer which are in direct connection with the sea.
Detailed geological studies have to carried out to clear the uncertainties of the hydraulic
connection between the different layers of the aquifer
Taking into consideration that the applied mechanism of sea level rise is assigned to the
model as a vertical component only.
Figure 12: Groundwater Salinity Cross Section in the Study Area
Mitigation measures for salt water intrusion
Artificial recharge for groundwater through Injection wells using different sources of water
(treated sewage water, excess surface water).
Building an impervious barrier (slurry wall) to prevent the salt water intrusion.
Propose some constrains for land-use and groundwater extraction within the highly effected
zones.
Implementation of local monitoring network with various depths to monitor any change in
fresh/saline interface.
Conclusion and Recommendations
1. The implementation of local monitoring network is necessary to fill data gaps related to
groundwater head and vertical groundwater salinity in shallow and deep groundwater aquifer.
2. Carry out a detailed survey work for the coastal area for accurate simulation of the model
especially what is related to ground surface, depth to groundwater.
3. Using of environmental isotopes to study the high saline layers to determine its age,
source and recharge mechanism between aquifers and adjacent layers.
4. Implementation of a detailed study to detect the optimal design for injection wells which
will be used to inject treated sewage water into coastal aquifers including its location, depths
and injection rates to avoid any negative impacts concerning immersion of low land areas
near the coast.
5. Study the technical, environmental and economical feasibility of artificial recharge.
6. Down scaling to detect the zones which will be affected by immersion of sea water within
100 yrs.
- References
Agrawalia Shardul, Annett Moehner, Mohamed El Raey, Declan Conway, Maarten van
Aalst, Marca Hagenstad and Joel Smith; 2004; Development And Climate Change In
Egypt: Focus On Coastal Resources And The Nile; Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development COM/ENV/EPOC/DCD/DAC(2004)1/FINAL
Dames and Moor, "Sinai development study-phase 1, water resources volumes II-A and II-B,
submitted to the advisory committee for reconstruction, ministry of development, Cairo,
Egypt," 1985.
El-Fishawi, N.M. and Fanos, A.M., Prediction of Sea Level Rise by 2100, Nile Delta Coast.
International Union for Quaternary Research, no. 11, p43-47, October 1989
El Shamy, I. Z., El Shazly, M. M. and Shata, A. (1969): "Contribution to the geology of El
Dabaa area, western Mediterranean littoral zone." Part 1, Geomorphology and morphology.
Bull. Ins. Desert, Cairo, v. 19, no. 1, pp. 63-96.
Paver, G.L. and J.N. Jordan. 1956. Report of Ministry of Public Works on reconnaissance,
Hydrological and geophysical observations in North Sinai coastal area of Egypt. Desert
Institute, Cairo. Publication no 7.
RIGW/ IWACO, (1988) Hydrogelolgical Map Of Egypt Scale 1: 2000000. Research
Institute For Groundwater, Ministry of public Works and Water Resources, Cairo.
RIGW/ IWACO, (1990) Hydrogelolgical Map Of Egypt Scale 1:500000, Map Sheet Nile
Delta, Research Institute For Groundwater, Ministry of public Works and Water Resources,
Cairo.
Shata, A. (1957):'' Geology and geomorphology of Wadi El Kharruba area, western desert,
Mediterranean litoral, Matruh District, Egypt.'' Bull. Inst. Desert D' Egypt, No.10, pp 91 -120.
Water Resources Research Institute(WRRI), Groundwater Sector(GWS), (2005); Water
Resources Supply for Bedouin Settlement at Rafah-El Shiekh Zuwyied Area, North-Eastern
Sinai, submitted to Islamic Bank for Development, Jeddah.