CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter explores and analyzes literature in three research categories;
clay in the classroom, creative growth, and contemporary ceramic artists and
techniques. The first section explores the history and current approaches to
ceramics in the K-12 classroom. The second section explores creative growth
through ceramic education. The last section is dedicated to exploring contemporary
ceramics artists and their artwork.
Clay Ceramics? in the Classroom
The majority of literature about ceramics in the K-12? classroom appears to
have been written in the 1960s (Barford, G., 1963; Ball F. C. & Lovoos, J., 1965) with
at least one exception (Weisman Topal, C., 1983). However, over the last decade
there has been a revived interest in the field (Kong, E., 1999, Storms, P., 2010). This
section explores the differences between these two waves of literature about
ceramics in the classroom.
Traditional Art Making in the Sixties
George Barford, at the time a professor within the Art Department at Illinois
State University, created a guidebook for elementary art educators in the 1960s
(Barford, 1960). His book about using clay in the elementary classroom was meant
for all levels of teachers, from novices to veterans, who used clay as a medium.
Pairing with Dorothy W. Perkins, editor of Barford’s book This is confusing—Is
Perkin’s co-editor with Perkins of a book with different chapters some of which he
wrote, or is Perkin’s the editor and did other people write chapters in the book in
addition to Barford ? I don’t have the full citation so I can’t clear this up. , Barford
and Dorothy Perkins, from Rhode Island’s School of Design, produced an
informative book on the materials, equipment, procedures and methods for
incorporating clay into the art room. Perkins, in her introductory note, argues that
“clay is one of the finest materials for education in art expression” (1963, pg 4). Perkins
asserts that clay is easily molded, but also has the ability to maintain its shape through
drying and firing processes. Clay, Perkins (1963) argues, needs no tools and direct
manipulation encourages exploration through touch.
Barford explores the multiple ways a teacher can guide students through an
elementary ceramics curriculum. The contents of his chapters (are they his chapters or
there other chapters in the book?) include traditional techniques of creating ceramic
artwork, which includes hand forming (pinching, coiling, slabs, pressing), throwing on
the wheel, plaster molds, and functional and sculptural art. Barford discusses the
techniques utilized by whom? in the 1950s and early 60s.
Barford explores the various hand building techniques, which he defines as
pinching, pounding, coil building, scooping, slabs, slinging, and draping. This is
repetitive-you used the same words in the previous paragraph. Pinching is defined
as a method of shaping clay, as used as an introduction to ceramics? To a project?
because of its simplicity. Barford states this method is the most direct experience a
child can have with clay, giving them immediate satisfaction, making it suitable for
all ages ?? elementary school grades? (1963). Pounding is a technique where a form
is created from clay paddled over a surface. Barford references Mexican and Native
American pottery, believing that these two cultures use this method the most
frequently (1963). Coil building, as Barford describes it is an “enjoyable
manipulative experience for children”, assuming that children find this method of
ceramic hand building enjoyable because they have an ability to control how large
the coil is, how it will be used and how it can create a three-dimensional form (1963,
pg 26). Barford focuses on instructional methodology but does not offer guidance
for what to create nor does he offer inspirational ideas to promote children’s
individual growth and creativity .
Student Centered Learning
By the 1980s, Cathy Wiseman Topal, an art educator, incorporated some of these
ideas into ceramics instruction in the elementary school classroom. Topal supports
student centered learning, paired with proper guidance from parents and educators (1983,
pg. 7). Topal discusses the styles, methods, art principles and techniques that support a
child’s learning and how they can use clay to express themselves and their creativity.
Although the book is to be used as a guidebook, much like those of the sixties and
seventies, Topal’s language and references sustain a different dialogue for learning. Like
Kong, who is Kong? You have not yet introduced her. You cannot compare Topal to
Kong until you discuss Kong. You can make this point later when you discuss Kong.
she incorporates key vocabulary necessary for children to use in their learning through
clay (Topal, 1983,).
Topal focuses on ways in which to incorporate clay into an elementary art
curriculum. Topal corrects the common misconception that “many teachers associate clay
with a big mess” (1983, p. #). She lists ways in which to create a working environment
that supports creativity and learning but also allows the teacher to guide children away
from creating potential hazards and trouble. From preparing clay to wedging and storing,
Topal provides information about how to create a clay-friendly classroom (1983,). Topal
incorporates ideas and themes such as explorations, leading critiques and displaying
finished pieces. Exploration, as Topal defines as simple manipulation made by hands and
fingers rather than tools. Topal argues that:
Hands are the only tools essential for clay exploration. Hands can change the form
and texture of the clay in a matter of seconds. They can poke, pinch, pound, roll,
squash, squeeze, stretch clay and much more. Working with clay fosters a special
kind of communication among hands, clay and imagination (1983).
This idea of using hands to create is a central part of Topal’s work. Topal argues that
using hands as tools allows children of all ages and skill level to work within their
limitations. Topal encourages teacher-student dialogue, no matter the age group in
the elementary school. This, she argues, creates a more meaningful process, as well
as a way to highlight different ways in which children explore clay (1983, pg 14-15).
Viktor Lowenfeld, who wrote about the important of creative growth and ceramic
education would agree with this theory, He can’t agree because he wrote before
Topal—you need to argue that Topal would agree with Lowenfeld instead adding
that process is more important in ceramic education, whereas the finished product
is secondary (Lowenfeld, 1987). Topal appears to agree with Viktor Lowenfeld……
Ellen Kong, a contemporary art educator, offers practical straightforward
guidelines for educators and artists to teach elementary children the basics of
ceramic education as well as supplying educators with valuable information such as
lesson ideas in the art room. Not only does she provide background information on
ceramics education such as technical health and safety tips, but also a glossary of
terms so students and teachers can learn the language of ceramics (Kong, 1999).
Compared to the early literature on ceramics education from the sixties,
Kong focuses on student centered learning. She introduces the reader to art education
as a process; a linear, sequential process in which, she argues, teachers should introduce
techniques one at a time to build to a bigger project or lesson. This technique differs from
first name Ball and first name Lovoos, also contemporary art educators, who believe in
using clay to help children explore different possibilities in their work rather than forcing
children to follow strict guidelines. Barford, on the other hand, seems to be more
technical with ceramic education and would agree (Barford CANNOT agree with Kong
because he wrote before Kong. Kong has to agree with Barford instead). Something
like…. Kong seems to agree with Barford’s approach from the 1960s.(Barford, date).
Kong asserts that children should learn the basic construction skills of working with clay?
before they are introduced to abstract concepts. Kong also emphasizes the importance of
the elements and principles of art over creativity and discovery (Kong, 1999). In contrast,
Ball and Lovoos focus on experimentation and exploring through clay.
Patty Storms, ceramic artist and educator at Lakeside Pottery School in Stamford,
Connecticut, agrees with Ball & Lovoos’emphasis on the importance of experimentation
and exploration in ceramic education. Storms would argue that once you demonstrate to
children how to do a certain technique they can grasp it and are confident to do it
themselves. She believes in experimentation rather than teacher-guided lessons that can
be limiting to children’s creative freedom (Storms, 2010).
Storms argues that the ceramic arts are not only important to education, but to the
development of certain skills such as sensory development and motor skills, as well as
other skills. Storms says, “There is no better moment for me than witnessing a child’s joy
as they sit at the potter’s wheel for the first time and place their wet hands on slowly
spinning clay” (2010). For the last six years she has had first hand experience watching
children flourish in front of her. According to Storms, clay is “invaluable” to children’s
development, physically, mentally and emotionally (2010). Storms argues the most
important factor of ceramic education is the stress on process and discovery rather than
product. She stresses that ceramic education is the joy of making and creating rather than
mastering the wheel or other techniques (2010).
Creative Growth
Lowenfeld started his research in 1947, and since his death in 1960 his
findings in (this is where you need the name of the book) have been republished a
number of times ( Brittain & Lowenfeld, 1987). Lowenfeld asserts that the
“development of creative thinking has tremendous importance for individuals and a
society” (1987, pg. 74). Since Lowenfeld’s death, it seems that creative growth has
still been a prominent theme in ceramic education. ( I am confused here. Are they
co-authors o this text? If so, you need to have consistent citations. I changed the one
you had above by inserting Britttain’s name) Brittain, W., & Lowenfeld, V., 1987).
More recently, there has been a more critical lens placed on understanding and
acknowledging how creativity can be utilized in the classrooms to benefit artistic
growth in students (Bagdasarian, A., 2005; Clough, P., 1996; Storms, P., 2010). But to
understand this shift, it is first important to consider Lowenfeld’s perspective on
creativity.
Lowenfeld, a pioneer in exploring how creativity and creative growth worked
in children, defines creativity as:
…Constructive, productive behavior that can be seen in action or
accomplishment. It does not have to be a phenomenon unique in the world,
but it does have to be a contribution from the individual (1987).
Creativity and creative growth, as Lowenfeld points out, is specific to the learner; in
this case, children as individuals. The most important thing Lowenfeld associates
with creative learning is how the teacher describes creative limits to children.
Lowenfeld argues that every child is born creative, and the “urge to explore,
to investigate, to discover” is a process that is essentially hardwired within us. This
process of learning Lowenfeld asserts is effected by environmental factors, the
physical structure of the room, the psychological environment, personalities of
children and social environment. All of these factors can contribute positively or
negatively to the individual’s creative process (Lowenfeld, 1987).
Challenges to Inquiry and Discovery
Lowenfeld believes in celebrating not only creativity, but also the joy of
discovery in children. The reasoning behind this is that the early promotion of
creativity will help children realize their fullest potential as artists? Lowenfeld
refers to young children and how they ask “why?” all the time and he points out that
within the first few years of formal education children do not get to ask “why?”
questions but are prepped to answer questions from adults, such as their teacher.
This reversal of discovery and learning Lowenfeld argues can trickle down into the
art room. Lowenfeld suggests that the effect of this on children forces adults and
educators to “ask and encourage children to become inquisitive, since this is a skill
that has not customarily been developed” (1987).
Intelligence versus Creativity
Lowenfeld argues that intelligence and creativity are not the same. He asserts
that because creativity is valued positively and intelligence is so highly valued, the
two appear to be the same or at least affect one another. Lowenfeld points out that
no proof that similarity exists, and in fact the two are not related to each other.
Lowenfeld cites past research conducted in 1981 how could he cite past research
from 1981 when he died in 1960? It must not have been Loweveld. Could it be
someone else? by scholars who conducted both IQ and creativity tests, and there
was no direct correlation (1987, pg. 78). Scholars found that some individuals were
intelligent and not creative and some were both creative and intelligent. Lowenfeld
states that intelligence can be tested. Meanwhile creativity, he points, out is hard to
measure because there is no “wrong” answer (1987, pg 77).
Clay and Creativity
According to Lowenfeld, ”a material is good only if it contributes to children’s
needs and helps express their intentions” (1987, pg. 336). Lowenfeld asserts that
any material can be suitable for children to use, but educators should keep in mind
the means of expression and the limitations of certain materials. One material
Lowenfeld is particularly concerned about is clay. Although he considers clay to be
an adult material, with its many adult uses such as ashtrays, he believes objects
produced should be age appropriate or they can be viewed as busy work (1987).
Process is a very important part of Lowenfeld’s theories about children’s art.
Lowenfeld argues that through exploration and manipulation of clay, children
become connected to their work, unlike other materials. This bond creates a
relationship where the child and the object are connected. Although most ceramic
pieces eventually are taken by the teacher to be fired in the kiln, Lowenfeld argues
that finished fired pieces no longer have the same relationship to the child, therefore
creating a disconnect. Because of this Lowenfeld supports unfired ceramic art, in
order not to “sacrifice the child’s individual thinking to conform to mere procedure”
(1987, pg. 337).
Peter Clough, an art educator, argues that it is the “journey that counts, not the
arrival, the experience, not the result” (1996, pg. 7). In other words, the process is more
important and should be recognized by educators and parents rather than the outcome. As
an artist and educator, Clough understands the artistic aspects of ceramic
education.Along these same lines, Kong, argues that art education is a continuous
process, stimulating not only growth in the individual child, but leading to the acquisition
of skills necessary to translate the child’s ideas, thoughts and feelings into self-creativity
(1999, pg ix).
Clough further explores the idea of ceramics aiding the creative process. He
asserts that by encouraging ceramics in the art curriculum teachers will help students
create new understandings by just experiencing new materials (1996). Clough also points
out that it is possible to tie historical and cultural background with a child’s art education.
This, combined with direct contact with the material, Clough argues, will help children
connect past and present, allowing the development of personal experiences and
techniques, knowledge of the given material and a stronger relationship to surrounding
objects (1996).
Clough also explores clay as a tool for creativity and the development of skills.
He states: “[clay] can be used in such an immense number of ways that the possibilities
for discovery and learning are almost endless” (1996, pg 12). He stresses the physical
involvement one has with clay, which is immediate, and the most important development
children can have in art education. This goes along with his idea of our “primitive desire
to form, change and control our world” (1996, pg 12).
Freedom in the Classroom
Kong argues that developing skills through art making and even ceramic art
making will lead children to make intentional decisions about elements and principles of
design, rather than just creating art for art’s sake (1999). Kong also argues “students
quickly tire of merely manipulating clay” (1999). This idea conflicts with Clough’s
theory that it is natural for us as humans to touch and manipulate anything around us.
Kong does not appear to support this theory as she argues small children want to see
progress rather than just “play” with clay.
In the classroom, Clough believes children should be allowed to become
imaginative with clay, but too much freedom is difficult for most children to handle.
Teaching technical skills he believes is important, and should be introduced, practiced,
and reinforced by branching off to other projects (1996,). From imagination comes the
development of fine motor skills. Clough asserts that “The finest tool that we human
beings have are our hands…” (1996, pg 15). This malleable material lets children
develop self-confidence as they explore creative possibilities and allows them to control
their hands and fingers to create a range of marks from fine and delicate to spontaneous
and direct (1996).
Creative Growth that Connects Fiction to Reality
The most recent literature about creativity in the classroom has taken a more
personal approach. Adam Bagdasarian, an author of the fictional short story “Clay”,
explores a character that goes through a creative process that takes a more personal
approach. His short story is about a man named Eric who is a writer and has developed
writer’s block. He talks about how experiences a disconnect in his life and how he cannot
connect with his feelings. In an attempt to regain control of his own creative process in
the midst of a mid-life crisis, he enrolls in an Adult Ceramics class.
Bagdasarian dives right into the possibilities of clay in a person’s life, allowing
his character, Eric, to develop metaphors about his life and his observations of others in
his class; “I looked around the room at my fellow students, but all I saw were varying
forms and faces of loneliness…they all seemed to need so much repair, and I wished they
were made of clay so that I could straighten their backs, square their shoulders, lift their
chins” (2005, pg 516).
Throughout the story, Eric develops into a person who is consumed by his
sculpture, dreaming of how he could become this great master artist, similar to Auguste
Rodin or Henry Moore. He is driven towards perfection in his work and he soon realizes
that it is not perfect, not even close. As he works and works on it, things begin to fall
apart, as does he.
Bagdasarian’s story illustrates the importance of creativity in education. Although
Eric is not an elementary student, his story is all too familiar and easily relatable to many
people. Bagdasarian argues through his writing how clay can make a person anxious,
excited, angry, and frightened all at the same time. He also writes about how easily Eric
feels connected to the material: “the clay felt natural in my hands, as though I had been
working with it all my life” (2005, pg. 517). This also connects with Clough’s conclusion
about how children approach clay and how we have an instinct to form and shape things
around us (Clough, 1996).
Contemporary Artists and Techniques
Much literature about what? written in the twenty-first century reflects
ideas and techniques used across centuries. However, contemporary artists are
beginning to develop new ideas and inspirations to be used as motivational
strategies for modern art in and outside the studio (Earle, J., 2005; Hernandez, J.,
2002; Quinn, A., 2007; Stern, B., 2001; Tourtillott, S., 2005,). The section considers
……explain what you will do in this section.
American Ceramics: California Pottery
Stern (need first name here and who he is, an art historian?) This sentence is
confusing. reflects the American pottery buzz, and amidst all the bright colors and
assembly lines of years past, Stern takes a leap into the history of Californian pottery and
some of the craftsmen behind it. The purpose of the book is to uncover history beneath
the shiny brightly colored joyous functionality, and to acknowledge the creativity and
expression that was coming from American potters from the early 1900s to the 1950s
(Stern, date).
Acknowledging that ceramic ware is all around us, whether it is in our cupboards,
on our mantles or housing our houseplants, Stern claims that California pottery is a blend
of cultures coming together. Stern compares the ceramics of California to that of ancient
Greek civilizations, believing that American pottery too told stories of the history and
reflection of the culture captured on a plate, cup or bowl. The immigration of Mexicans
and people from Santa Catalina Island reflect the influences of styles, surface decoration
and glaze colors that are unique to California pottery. <insert picture>
Functional versus Nonfunctional
Anthony Quinn, a designer, provides a guide to “designing ceramics with
confidence” (2007). With a background in freelance tableware design, it is not surprising
his book focuses on the utilitarian aspects of ceramics over creativity and self-expression.
Although his book is more of a guide for ceramic artists to be used in personal studios,
much of his literature can be applied to students in the classroom.
Within the confines of functional ceramics, Quinn offers a ceramics course for
artists, broken up into four sections: the Design Process, Practical Considerations,
Processes and lastly, Creative Concepts. Throughout Quinn discusses inspirations,
motivations, problem solving, political metaphors, and functionality.
In “The figure in clay: Contemporary sculpting techniques by master artists”
edited by Suzanne J. E. Tourtillott, You need an author here—I assume there a a number
of chapters in the book by different authors. Is Tourtillott the author of one of the
chapters? Unlike Quinn, Tourtillot does not focus on functionality. Instead, she focuses
on the sculptural aspects of exploring the human figure. The figure, according to
Tourtillott, has beckoned artists to challenge it with their creativity. From this challenge,
an entire range of individual thoughts on representation have become popular (2005, pg
8).
Today, Tourtillott argues, ceramic artists have much more freedom to express
their techniques and ideas. Tourtillot asserts that sculptors of the past, such as Auguste
Rodin, whose work “Age of Bronze” provoked scandal, even in his time, had to confront
controversy. Tourtillot says that freedom of expression also poses a challenge; must
confront negative outlooks in the art world. Some who??? argue that too much freedom
eliminates any sort of guidelines or standards for art making. However, the counter
argument for this is that widespread acceptance of new artistic styles have created artistic
diversity and welcomed new artists (Tourtillott, pg 10-11).
Contemporary Artist: C.J. O’Neill
Although Quinn references many modern artists such as CJ O’Neill, Barnaby
Barford and Julian Stair, he only seems to use their work as examples of teachnique
(2007,). Unlike Joseph Earl or Bill Stern who also focus on these artists but emphasize
their creativity and self-expression, Quinn focuses on technique. There is something to be
said though, about the techniques these chosen artists employ. Like Quinn, most of them
practice traditional ceramics, using either the wheel or hand built techniques to captivate
their viewer. For example, CJ O’Neill, a woman ceramic artist born in Northern
Ireland,describes her intentions:
“A feeling of calm, quiet nostalgia, a sense of belonging, contemplation and
thoughtfulness; these are all important to my work” (2007).
Ironically, Quinn never mentions this in his literature, but rather he removes himself from
connecting with the work, as well as the artists. Instead Quinn uses CJ O’Neill’s work as
an example of how pattern can be applied to ceramic surfaces to enhance the final piece.
True, pattern is a unique quality to O’Neill’s work, but Quinn chooses to highlight her
use of pattern rather than also providing more thoughtful observations (2007).
Below is a an example of O’Neill’s use of pattern. Her Myott Trio is from her
Heirloom Collection. In this series the artist purchased various plates from vintage
charity shops in the United Kingdom as well as Denmark. O’Neill uses hand cut and
printed transfers as an overlay on the ceramic pieces. In order to create patterns, she
overlaps them and carefully considers where to place each one. The idea of recreating
something new from something old is a theme of her work which offers another way of
thinking about ceramics. Thus, O’Neill created and evolved this basic “recycling” theme
and translated it onto a ceramic surface.
CJ O’Neill, Myott Trio. From New Heirlooms Collection. Vintage Tableware from UK & Denmark, 2006.
Contemporary Artist: Mark Burns
Mark Burns, a ceramic artist and sculptor who Tourtillott features, expresses his
inspirations behind his work (Tourtillott, date). Although Burns is inspired by the
popular ceramics of the fifties he gives them a contemporary twist with juxtaposition,
bright colors, and pop culture references. Burns also believes in giving ceramics history a
place in modern and contemporary ceramics.
The old adage that ‘those who refuse to learn from the past are doomed to repeat
it’ doesn’t apply in light of the ongoing love affair between ceramics and the
figurative artist(Burns, 2005).
His Psychedelic Lollipop (pictured below) is an example of this marriage of
historical and contemporary themes. Working from traditional construction methods,
such as slab building and slip casting, Burns points out the figure in his work takes center
stage as the main point of interest. As popular culture seems to be another point of
interest in Burns’ work, one cannot help but notice the fierceness of his work. Almost
cartoon-like, Burns pays close attention to construction, surface decoration and the scale
of his work. Psychedelic Lollipop is actually a contemporary twist on a table lamp, and
although it is functional, it is more sculptural in its construction. Burns admits that a lot
of research was done in preparation for this piece, from researching how 1950s table
lamps worked, to applying that knowledge and managing to translate that into his piece.
Even though Burns has been hailed for his contemporary pop art ceramic sculptures and
figures, he relies heavily on 1950s novelty lamps for construction models. The end result
is a figurative based lamp, of a young boy sitting atop clouds with a crown of pop cultural
references- including a skull, fire, an eyeball and the devil (Tourtillote, 2005).
International Ceramics: Contemporary Japan
According to Joseph Earle, an art historian, Japan, much like the rest of Asia, has
a culture of pottery making which has relied on traditional techniques (Earle, date),
Functionality was what defined successful pieces. From tea sets to soup bowls or sushi
plates, almost all pottery had a function. However, Earle argues that in more recent years
Japanese artists have embraced change and are willing to take chances. Functionality is a
mainstream theme among different cultures, and this is especially true in Japan.
Earle explores the new Japanese pottery of the twenty-first century. Instead of
functionality, there is more importance placed on self-expression and personal
fulfillment. Earle asserts that “In a country where pots matter”, artists are are more
focused on creativity rather than creating ceramic wares as functional pieces (2005, p. #).
The idea of creating connections to the work instead of just producing work to be bought
and sold opens up a place for intimate relationships to develop between artist and piece.
Kishi Eiko, an artist cited in Earle’s book, argues that “It’s only in the making of my
work that I understand where the piece is going” (2004). Meaning, that only from
working with the materials over a long period of time can she feel their potential.
Compared to traditional pottery that is made on the wheel and usually takes a few
minutes or maybe an hour for a skilled artist to create, Eiko spends months working on
the same piece, all by hand building and slab formation. According to Earle, this creates a
deep connection to the piece and as a result, the artist’s personality is able to show
through (2005).
Kishi Eiko, Vessel with Inlaid Multi-colored glazes, 2001, stoneware.
The collection of pottery Earle focuses on is from Kyoto, the former capital of
Japan, and where he asserts that the transformation of ceramic thinking began to unfold.
In the 1940s a group of Kyoto artists chose to disregard traditional ideals of pottery and
began to create more sculptural work instead of utilitarian friendly cups, bowls and plates
(Earle, 2005).
Although the tradition of ceramic pottery making is vastly different today in
Japan, there are still some artists that hold true to tradition. Even as technology has
developed and glaze chemistry and kiln architecture have adapted to the twenty-first
century, there are still groups of practicing artists that believe in traditional ceramic wares
and strive for beautifully thrown and glazed bowls, plates and teapots. Nevertheless, one
thing that remains true to Japanese culture is that ceramic art has deep roots within its
rich history.
You should put the bibliography at the end of the literature review.