Honors Biology
Final Review
Chapters 8-20
Chap 8: Photosynthesis
ATP- adenosine triphosphate (adenosine, ribose, 3-phosphates)
used to store & release energy
Stores energy by adding phosphate groups
Releases energy by breaking bond of phosphate group
Energy needed to convert ADP to ATP provided by electrons moving down ETC
Photosynthesis: plants convert solar energy into chemical energy (carbohydrates)
Pigments: light absorbing molecules
Chlorophyll: main pigment, reflects green light
Thylakoids: holds chlorophyll inside of chloroplast
Chloroplasts: photosynthesis takes place
Stroma: fluid portion of chloroplast
Light dependent reactions: takes place in thylakoids
Solar energy used to produce energy rich compounds for light independent
reactions, O2 released
Light independent: absorb CO2 and produce sugar using high energy compounds, takes place in
stroma
Factors affecting : temp, light, water
Chap 9: Cellular respiration
Cellular respiration: process that releases energy from food in presence of oxygen
Mitochondria-location of respiration
Glycolysis-Krebs-ETC
Glycolysis is an anaerobic process, glucose in- pyruvate out
Krebs & ETC both aerobic
ETC- most ATP produced
Photosynthesis produces glucose which plant must break down as food using respiration
ATP- most important energy storing compound
Chap 10: Mitosis
Living things grow because they produce more cells
As a cell increase in size, its volume increases at a faster rate than surface area so it is harder to
move nutrients in & wastes out
Asexual: binary fission
Mitosis
Sexual: conjugation
Genetic diversity
Mitosis-cell divides into 2 identical daughter cells, same number of chromosomes
Cancer- cells have lost the ability to control their rate of growth
Cyclins-regulates cell cycle
Cytokinesis- cytoplasm divides
Chromosomes-contain the genetic info
Mitosis phases:
Interphase-period between cell divisions. Consists of G1, S & G2. DNA replication takes
place
Prophase- longest phase, nucleus divides, chromosomes appear, centrioles separate.
Metaphase- shortest phase, chromosomes line at the center
Anaphase- sister chromatids split, chromosomes pull to opposite ends of cell
Telophase- final phase, chromosomes uncoil, nuclear envelope reforms
Cytokinesis takes place and cytoplasm divides cell.
In plant cell division a cell plate is formed
Differentiation: cells develop into their own structure & function
Specialization: have developed into their own function ex: heart cell, muscle, etc.
Stem cells: can differentiate into other cell types
Chap 11: Genetics
The branch of biology that studies heredity is genetics.
Gregor Mendel- Father of genetics
Probability-likelihood an event will occur, used to predict traits of offspring of crosses
genes- the factor that controls traits
genome: entire set of genes that an organism has
alleles- different forms of a gene ex. Tall & short
principle of dominance: some alleles are dominant (effects are seen) & others are recessive (not
observed when dominant allele is present).
Phenotype- physical characteristics, what they look like
Genotype- genetic make-up, actual alleles!
Homozygous- 2 identical alleles (purebred) ex: TT or tt
Heterozygous- 2 different alleles (hybrid)
ex. Tt
Diploid- normal number. 1 set from each parent
Haploid- cells that contain a single set of chromosomes Gametes (sex cells) are haploid.
Genes are located on the chromosome
Punnett square: used to predict the probability of offspring
Incomplete dominance- the active allele does not compensate for the inactive allele
Ex. Red carnations crossed with white result in pink
Codominance- both alleles are expressed
Ex: blood groups
Polygenic inheritance- traits controlled by 2 or more genes
Meiosis- cell division that results in the formation of sex cells(gametes)
Crossing over- produces genetic variation, prophase I
Comparing Mitosis & Meiosis
Mitosis results in 2 diploid cells genetically identical to each other
Meiosis results in 4 haploid cells genetically different than each other. This is due to
crossing over.
Chap 12: DNA
Griffiths Experiments: transformation-harmless bacteria change into harmful bacteria
Transforming factor found to be DNA
DNA
RNA
Protein
DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid- the genetic code
Nucleotide: 3 basic parts: 5-C sugar (deoxyribose)
phosphate group
nitrogenous base
4 Nitrogenous Bases
adenine
→ Purines
guanine
cytosine
→ Pyrimidines
Thymine
DNA molecules wrap around histone proteins
chromosomes
structure:
The Double Helix:
Watson & Crick-Nobel prize in 1962
2 strands of DNA, twisted around
each other forming a double helix
these make up nucleosomes
condense to
ChargaffThe % of adenine = Thymine
the % of cytosine = guanine
A-T
C-G
Weak hydrogen bonds between the
bases
Base pairing- this is the force that holds the double helix together.
Chap 13: RNA
RNA- ribonucleic acid
This is the nucleic acid that acts as a messenger between DNA & the ribosomes &
carries out the process by which proteins are made from amino acids.
5-carbon sugar: deoxyribose
phosphate group
nitrogenous base
1. sugar in RNA is ribose not
deoxyribose
2.
RNA is single stranded
3.
nitrogenous bases are
adenine, cytosine,guanine
& uracil (not thymine)
A-U
C-G
Transcription: RNA synthesis
The process by which a molecule of DNA is copied into a complementary strand of
mRNA (transferring info from DNA to RNA) occurs in the nucleus
Translation
The decoding of a mRNA message into a polypeptide chain (protein), occurs at the
ribosome
Codon-3 bases on mRNA
Anticodon- 3 bases on tRNA
Mutation: heritable changes in genetic code
Gene Mutations:
Point: change in 1 or few nucleotides
Frameshift: shift the reading frame of message such as insertion, deletion
Chromosomal Mutations: change in number or structure of chromosome
Deletion: loss of part of chromosome
Duplication: extra copy
Inversion: reverses direction of part
Translocation: part breaks off & attaches to another chromosome
Chap 14: Human Heredity
Sickle – cell Anemia: red blood cells are sickle shaped.
Caused by one change in one of the polypeptides found in hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin carries oxygen in the red blood cells.
Blood groups:
Type A- antigen A, IA IA or IA Ii
Type B- antigen B, IB IB or IB Ii
Type AB- antigen AB, IA IB
Type O- no antigens, Ii Ii
universal donor: O
Down’s Syndrome- caused by nondisjunction of chromosome 21
Sex influenced trait- trait caused by a gene whose expression differs in males & females
Ex. Male patterned baldness
Karyotype: complete set of diploid chromosomes arranged in decreasing size, normal human 46
Nondisjunction: homologous chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis
Gel electrophoresis- a method for separation and analysis of macromolecules (DNA, RNA and
proteins) and their fragments, based on their size and charge. The smallest segment moves the
farthest & fastest.
DNA samples-analysis of DNA samples
Chap 16/17: Evolution
Theory of Evolution
A collection of carefully reasoned & tested hypotheses about how evolutionary changes
occurs.
Evolution: The process by which modern organisms have descended from ancient organisms
Charles Darwin- main contributor to theory of evolution, author of On the Origin of Species
Fitness: the physical traits & behaviors that enable organisms to survive & reproduce in their
environment
Common descent: all species have shared or common ancestors
Evidence in support of common descent:
Fossil vertebrates
embryology
Vestigial structures (left over, no longer used)
homologous structures- similar structure ex. Limbs of different organisms
Analogous structures- similar function ex wings
Adaptation: fitness arises through this process. This helps organisms become better suited to their
environment. Ex. Giraffe
Natural selection: the process by which those having traits that better enable them to adapt to
specific environmental pressures will tend to survive and reproduce
Changes in the inherited characteristics of populations over time
Acts directly on phenotypes
Single gene traits: acts directly on phenotypes
Polygenic traits: affects the relative fitness of phenotypes producing types of selection
Directional: individuals toward one end of the curve have greater fitness
Stabilizing: individuals at center have higher fitness
Disruptive: individuals at lower and higher ends have higher fitness
Artificial selection:
Homologous structures: adapted to different purposes as a result of descent with modification
from common ancestor-similarities in embryonic development.
Analogous structures: common structure not common function
Vestigial: inherited from ancestor; lost original function
Gene pool: all the genes in a population
Gene frequency- the number of times an allele occurs in a gene pool
Isolating Mechanisms: 2 populations can no longer breed
Reproductive: behavioral, geographic, temporal
Chap 20
Virus-






noncellular, made of RNA or DNA & protein
cannot carry out life processes unless they are within a living host cell
lytic infection-destruction of host cell
lysogenic infection- does not reproduce at once & lyse the host
interferon- the body produces this protein as a natural defense against viruses
viruses act as a parasite



tail fibers- attach to the host
capsule- contains genetic information(DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein coat
Ex’s of viruses: AIDS, common cold, influenza, measles
Bacteria












prokaryotes(lacking nucleus)
bacilli- rod shaped
cocci- round shaped
spirilla- spiral shaped
obligate aerobes- need air to live
anaerobes- must live without oxygen
binary fission- asexual reproduction, daughter cells identical
conjugation- sexual reproduction, receiving cell different genetic combination
nitrogen fixation- take nitrogen from the air & convert it into a form that plants can use
to make proteins
Flagella-aids in movement
Antibiotics inhibit cell wall synthesis
Important role in nitrogen fixation
Autotrophs-produce their own food from sunlight
Ex’s of diseases caused by bacteria: syphilis, food poisoning
Pathogen- disease causing