THEORY, PARADIGM AND MODEL
Theory is more then a cataloging of the social world: it is an attempt to provide an abstract
understanding or explanation of the social world. Theories are a set of logically interrelated
propositions, presented in a systematic way which describe and explain social phenomena. They
are logically constructed statements that summarize and organize knowledge in a particular area
and are open to testing, reformulation modification and revision.
Functions of Theories
Bernard Cohen in 1994 drawing from the work of Larry Lauden in 1982 proposes that the central
function of theory is to solve problems. Lauden notes that:
“The first and essential acid test for any theory is whether it provides acceptable answers to
interesting questions.”
Theories can be used to address a number of type’s problems. According to Lauden it can begin
with three types of problems:
•
Empirical problems
•
Conceptual problems
•
Practical problems
Empirical problems
An empirical problem is “any thing about the world which strikes us as odd or otherwise in need
of explanation”.
Conceptual problems
Conceptual problem exists when a particular theory exhibits inconsistencies that need to be
clarified
Practical problems
The utility in solving practical problems has historically played major role in both assessing and
promoting theory construction. Within the field of communication, the role of theory in dealing
with practical or applied problems is particularly important. Communication scholars often
confront applied issues such as how to improve the provisions of health care how to enhance the
effectiveness of problem solving organizational groups.
Assessing the quality of theory
So in assessing the quality of theory three related questions should be answered:
1. Does the theory solve the problem, regardless of whether that problem is empirical conceptual
or practical?
2. Does the solution compare favorably with alternative solutions?
3. Is the solution progressive in that it represents an improvement over its predecessor and opens
up new avenues for solving new problems?
Models in communication research
What are models?
Models are a theoretical and simplified representation of the real world. A model is not an
explanatory device by itself, but it helps to formulate theory. It suggests relationships, and it is
often confused with theory because the relationship between a model and a theory is so close.
Definitions
“A model is a consciously simplified description in graphic form of a piece of reality. A model
seeks to show the main elements of any structure or process and the relationships between these
elements”. (McQueen).
Deutsch in 1952 pointed out that:
1. Model is a structure of symbols and operating rules which is supposed to match a set of
relevant points in an existing structure or process.
2. Models are indispensable for understanding the more complex processes.
3. This is a form of selection and abstraction.
So a successful pictorial model offers three major advantages:
1. They organize concepts
2. They explain processes and
3. They predict outcomes
They organize concepts
Models organize concepts by ordering and relating systems to each other and by providing us
with images of wholes that we might not otherwise perceive.
A model gives a general picture of a range of different particular circumstances.
They explain processes
Models explain processes by providing in simplified way information which would otherwise be
complicated or ambiguous. This gives a model a heuristic function, since it can guide the student
or researcher to key points of a process or system
They predict outcomes or the course of events
Models can at least be a basis for assigning probabilities to various alternative outcomes, and
hence for formulating hypotheses in research.
KINDS OF MODELS
Structural model
Functional models
Structural model
Some models claim only to describe the structure of a phenomenon.
In this sense, a diagram of the components of a radio set or diagram of a digestive system etc,
could be described as “structural’.
Functional models
Functional models, describe systems in terms of energy, forces and their direction, the relations
between parts and the influence of one part on another. The communication models fall into this
category, simply all communication is in some degree dynamic and involves some elements of
process or change
Before we study the communication models lets first look into the most general terms what
communication implies. It implies
•
Sender (encoder)
•
A channel
•
A message
•
A receiver (decoder)
•
A receiver between sender and receiver
•
An effect
•
A context in which communication occurs and
•
A range of things to which messages refer
•
Feedback – any process by which the communicator obtains information about
whether and how the intended receiver has indeed received the message
Three different ways of viewing communication processes
1. Linear model
2. Interactive model
3. Transactional
LINEAR MODELS
Linear models are based on the principles of stimulus-response psychology, in which a receiver
is affected (response) by a message (stimulus) that emanates from a communication source.
These models depict the communication process as a series of progressive, linear steps in the
transmission of ideas from one person to another.
Lass well formula
Who says (communicator?)
What to (message)
In which channel (channel)
To whom (receiver)
With what effect (effect)
Lass well formula corresponding with communication research
Who says (control studies)
What to (content analysis)
In which channel (media analysis)
To whom (audience analysis)
With what effect (effect analysis)
Boaddock’s extension of the Lasswell formula
Who Says
What to
In which channel
To whom
Under what circumstances?
For what purpose?
With what effect)
Shannon-Weaver model
One of the first linear models of communication, known as the Shannon-Weaver model,
(developed in 1940’s) described the process of telecommunication.
They developed a model that depicts a message emanating from an information source, which
becomes a signal after passing through a transmitter, depending upon the amount of noise or
interference present, the signal passes through to a receiver, where it is decoded as a message.
Westley - MacLean model
This model (originated in 1950s) differs from the Shannon-Weaver model in that they include
mechanism for FEEDBACK or return flow of information from a receiver to the original source,
and gate keeping, a mechanism (usually a person) that has the power to control information and
even prevent it from reaching a destination .
The gatekeeper was thought to be an important new dimension of communication models to
many in mass communication, because it serves as an analog for editors ,e.g. who control and
select the messages that ultimately get to readers of newspapers or viewers of news programs.
INTERACTIVE MODELS
This model which depicts communication as an interactive process originated in the 1950’s.The
Osgood and Schramm interactive model emphasizes the sharing of information between
communicator, who gives and receive information interactively.
Osgood and Schramm interactive model
The circular model describes communication as interactive and interpretive, with communicators
almost simultaneously sending and receiving messages. Each person alternates in his or her role
as encoder interpreter and decoder of shared messages.
TRANSACTIONAL MODELS
This model takes into consideration the character of the message and the psychological
orientation of the audience member as factors influencing the power of media effects.
OTA transactional model
The OTA (US office of technology assessment) transactional model separates communication
into three distinct processes:
1. Message formulation
2. Message interpretation
3. Message exchange
And emphasizes the interdependencies of the processes.