Running head: KSS-5000 RESEARCH MANUSCRIPT
Determining Personality Types of Elected or Assigned Leadership within High
School Athletic Teams (Introversion vs. Extroversion)
By
Neal M. Turner
B.S. Eastern Illinois University, 2013
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Abstract
Measuring levels of introversion and extroversion is an important aspect of
personality testing. Introversion indicates people who are less outgoing and reserved,
extroversion indicates outgoing and charismatic (Cain, 2012). People within leadership
positions are regarded as extroverted; however this does not indicate a trait of superior
leadership (Grant, Gino, & Hofmann, 2011). The purpose of this study was the
identification and quantification of introversion and extroversion levels amongst male
varsity captains within the high school athletics setting. 26 submitted surveys yielded 34
subjects (n=34) due to multi-sport participation. The 34 subjects were varsity captains in
each of the four sports measured (baseball, basketball, golf, and baseball). Total
extroverts amounted to 29, introverts totaled 3, and ambiverts 2. Mean scores of the 34
subjects totaled 28.88, which indicates extroverted personalities to be the dominate
personality amongst varsity captains within the study. Extroverts (85.3%) outnumbered
introverts/ambiverts (14.7%). Mean survey scores (table 1) determined captains in each
sport type to fall towards the extroverted side of the intro/extroversion scale. Small
sample size restricted any definitive conclusion to be made regarding personality type
within high school athletic leadership.
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Determining Personality Types of Elected or Assigned Leadership within High
School Athletic Teams (Introversion vs. Extroversion)
Introduction and Background
Leadership is an integral facet of sport. High school athletic teams and coaches factor in a
multitude of characteristics when deciding who will hold the title(s) of team captain(s).
However, coaches fail to recognize leadership styles and specific personality types before
electing or nominating captains of varsity athletic teams. Determining levels of introversion and
extroversion through personality testing gives coaches a better understanding of how captains
will interact with team members. Better understanding of personality types and different
leadership styles will provide further education for identifying potential leaders of athletic teams.
A common perception is there are two types of leaders, those who lead by their actions
(behavioral) and those who can vocally take charge of a situation (trait) (Weinberg & Gould,
2011). Behavioral leaders tend to effectively lead through detail and instruction. Trait leadership
is generally considered to be common among successful individuals with high level traits such as
intelligence, assertiveness, independence, and self-confidence (Weinberg & Gould, 2011).
Within sport, leaders can be comprised of a combination of personalities (introverts, extroverts,
and ambiverts) and different leadership styles (trait and behavioral). For example within the
Chicago Bulls professional basketball team, Joakim Noah is an extroverted personality utilizing
trait leadership through vocal and physical expression. Derrick Rose is an introverted personality
type, who leads behaviorally through example setting in work ethic and practice habits. The
Chicago Bulls utilize the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator test to better understand their player’s
personalities and traits (Beck, 2014).
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Leaders who arouse motivation and encouragement through actions and examples are
commonly perceived as introverted. Introversion is a personality classification determined by
characteristics such as: being quiet, reserved, thoughtful, cautious, and having a higher level of
comfort in a setting with minimal amounts of people and social interaction, or none at all (Cain,
2012). These leaders draw experience and information from internal processing and
communicate most effectively upon reflection and analyzing problems over an extended period
of time (Opt & Loffredo, 2003). Introverted personalities tend to focus upon ideas and concepts,
while being less physically expressive than their extroverted counterparts and showing signs of
being less dominant, open, and relaxed when communicating with others (Opt & Loffredo,
2003). The extroverted leader will display characteristics opposite that of the introvert.
More naturally vocal and outgoing leaders are classified as being extroverted.
Extroverted personalities are classified as being more assertive, dominant, outgoing, outspoken,
and crave social interactions (Cain, 2012). The extroverted leader is commonly personified
because of their exuberance and verbal speaking skills, therefore the more socially recognizable
and attractive personality type (Opt & Loffredo, 2003). Extroverts are more dominant, open, and
relaxed when interacting with others and they project these characteristics towards the people
they are communicating with (Opt & Loffredo, 2003).
Introversion and Extroversion are broad terms within the complex measure of the human
personality and are not concrete labels of a sole personality type in human beings. The term
ambivert is used to describe a personality consisting of traits combining both introversion and
extroversion (Cohen & Schmidt, 1979). The famous psychologist Carl Jung was quoted as
saying, “There is no such thing as a pure extrovert or a pure introvert. Such a man would be put
in the lunatic asylum” (Cain, 2012). Therefore it should be noted that within this research
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ambiversion factors into testing the personality type of varsity athletic captains. With sole
personality types being rare, introversion and extroversion levels can be measured and scaled
according to where human personality falls on a continuum. Eysenck’s Continuum of Arousal
(Benziger, 2014) is one way researchers use measured levels of arousal to determine how
introverted or extroverted an individual may be from degrees of low, moderate, and high.
Arousal levels, the speed of the brain’s activity, are a key indicator of how the different
personality types react to higher rates of mental stimulation (Benziger, 2014). Introverts arousal
levels are naturally high which leads to excessive arousal when participating in an environment
of high social interaction for extended periods of time. Introverted persons must recharge their
arousal levels with periods of solitude and minimal interaction in order to restore proper balance
and interpret all of the information they have taken in (Benziger, 2014). Arousal levels among
extroverted individuals works exactly opposite of introverted individuals.
Extrovert’s arousal levels are naturally low (Benziger, 2014). Seeking constant social
interaction, competition, and trying to exert influence or control are ways extroverts try to
heighten arousal levels above normal conditions (Benziger, 2014). Periods of minimal social
interaction or solitude keeps extroverts arousal levels uncomfortably low. This contrasts with
introverted personalities who seek quiet time to minimize their high level of arousal (Benziger,
2014). This knowledge of personality types and their accompanied arousal levels may positively
impact sport, allowing coaches to gain a better understanding of their athletes and the captains
they appoint or elect. Coaches may utilize knowledge of personality types to create environments
that better accommodate introverts and extroverts.
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In positions of leadership introverts are more reflective and thrive in conditions
allowing for individual times of thought (Hagey, 2009). After internally processing
information, introverts make calculated and extensively planned decisions. (Hagey,
2009). As such, introverted captains may struggle in sports requiring quick thinking and
decision making. The introverted personality would also be uncomfortable being
appointed to give a pre-game or halftime speech addressing the team. Coaches should not
necessitate these types of social interactions amongst introverted captains. Introverted
leaders may better thrive in environments such as meeting with teammates in small group
settings or having one on one interaction with teammates. Accommodating introverted
leaders in accordance with their personality traits allows comfortable expression of ideas
and creates potential improvements in decision making. The result of integrating
situations that adhere to an introverted personality may lead to improved leadership skills
amongst captains within an athletics team. Extroverted captains should also be
accommodated based on the needs of their personality type.
Coaches with extroverted leaders can provide accommodations through increased
group and team activities with high levels of social interaction. These include activities
such as team meetings (with or without coaches’ presence), team dinners, awards
banquets, practice situations, and meetings with media. These situations are examples of
comfortable platforms for extroverted personalities to addressing large amounts of
people. Based on their personality traits (Cain, 2012) and craving for high levels of
arousal (Benziger, 2014) extroverted captains should thrive in speech giving situations
and moments where outgoing enthusiasm is required to motivate the team as a whole.
This allows for the team members to be sufficiently led by one of their own and not place
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the burden of leadership solely on the coach. Future athletes in leadership positions may
see benefits in the ability to associate with their introverted or extroverted personality
type.
Recent findings suggest extroverted people in management positions benefit from
adjusting their leadership style based on employee’s passive or proactive work habits
(Grant, Gino & Hoffmann, 2011). Extroverted leaders managing more passive
individuals were found to have higher profit margins when their leadership style was
more engaging, outgoing, and hands-on. Comparably, when employees were more
proactive and capable of handling work themselves, managers engaged in less
extroverted leadership characteristics (less hands-on, more delegation) and profit margins
increased (Grant, Gino & Hoffmann, 2011). This research is relevant to extroverted and
introverted leadership within sport because it presents a model for effective adjusting of
personality traits by captains to fit team personnel (other teammates).
Extroverted captains with passive teammates must arouse excitement through
their outgoing and outspoken personalities. However captains must reduce their levels of
extroversion with proactive teammates in order to allow for more efficient
communication leading to more input from others subsequently resulting in better
productivity as a team. Coaches should recognize team personnel when electing captains,
assigning introverted leaders when rosters consist of proactive teammates and extroverted
leaders to rosters consisting of passive teammates.
These findings also acknowledge that effective leadership may not directly result
from extroverted leaders and group performance may be inadequately reported (Grant,
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Gino, & Hofmann, 2011). Highly efficient leadership reported by fellow employees may
be overestimated due to the “halo effect” created by extroverted personalities
overwhelming charisma. Understanding the “halo effect” may allow coaches and
teammates a more accurate representation of their captains overall effectiveness. Coaches
should note this information and be aware that a charismatic personality is not necessarily
the ideal characteristic of leadership. Extroverted personalities, although most noticeable
in Western and Eastern culture, may not have a positive impact on group performance
(Grant, Gino, & Hoffmann, 2011).
According to an online survey conducted among senior level executives earning
six figures salaries found that 65 percent of participants attributed leadership hindrances
to introverted personalities and only 6 percent of the participants believed introverted
leaders were superior to extroverted leaders in terms of overall effectiveness (Grant,
Gino, & Hofmann, 2011).The portrayal of extroverted leadership in movies and popular
culture has left the introverted leader overlooked and unrecognized amongst the sporting
and business community. According to Grant, Gino, and Hofmann, 50% of the general
population is extroverted, while 96% of managers and executives display the
characteristics commonly associated with an extroverted personality (2011). Clearly there
is a large discrepancy between introverted leaders and extroverted leaders within the
business community. Similar research amongst the athletic community regarding the
relationship between personality type and leadership positions is limited or nonexistent.
However research from the business industry in regards to the effects of introverted and
extroverted leadership on teamwork efficiency provides a relatable framework for the
athletic community.
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In the study conducted by Grant, Gino, and Hofmann (2011) measuring how
many t-shirts could be folded in a certain timeframe, introverted leaders saw a 28%
increase in productivity when working with proactive employees. Extroverted leaders felt
their position threatened and were more unwilling to listen or accept suggestions, leading
to an overall poor performance in amount of t-shirts folded when compared to the
introverted leadership group. The experiment concluded that introverted leaders are more
adept to careful listening which leads to an increased feeling of self-worth for participants
within a group and a more overall level of motivation (2011). This research can be
substituted with examples specifically pertaining to sport situations, while leadership
personality characteristics and openness to flexibility when working with others still
applies. Captains eliminating feelings of entitlement and being open to receiving
feedback and suggestion from others will lead to better results and improved morale
amongst team members.
Research throughout sport suggests a quintessential personality type for athletes
does not exist (Barker & Adams, 2010). Considering levels of introversion and
extroversion vary amongst the general population (Grant, Gino & Hofmann, 2011) no
one personality can be deemed optimum for an athletics team, which assumed from
research, will consist of varying personality types. However specific sport participation
has been linked to certain personalities. Barker and Adams (2010) describe introverted
personalities as more likely to participate amongst individual based sports such as: long
distance running, biking, golf, and archery. This is due to introvert’s preference for
activities requiring high focus and concentration that feature calm stable environments.
Unsurprisingly, athletes with extroverted personalities prefer fast paced environments and
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enjoy more change and higher moments of excitement. For these reasons extroverted
athletes prefer action-sports such as football, basketball, baseball, and wrestling, which
feature more stimulation than slower paced, individualized sports. Extroverted athletes
also have a higher pain tolerance than introverts, which may explain why extroverts are
more drawn to contact sports such as football and wrestling (2010).
Prior research has shown the importance of analyzing personality types amongst
leadership within the business world. However, research relating to athletic leadership
and personality type is limited (Raglin, 2001). Business-oriented studies can provide
framework for future research regarding athletics. Recognizing which personality type is
more or less prevalent in leaders amongst certain sports is beneficial to coaching staffs
and teammates. Future developments in personality identification and sport psychology
will serve beneficial towards the athletic community as it is able to gain a better
understanding of how people naturally respond to different situations and settings due to
their levels of introversion and extroversion.
Purpose and Hypothesis
The purpose of this study was the identification and quantification of introversion
and extroversion levels amongst male varsity captains within the high school athletics
setting. The study pertained to four male high school sports including football, basketball,
baseball, and golf. These sports were selected due to their popularity, all ranking in the
top 10, amongst high school male team sports within the United States (NFHS, 2013).
This research described the prevalence of introversion and extroversion personality types
in male high school varsity captain’s and compare this prevalence between the selected
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four major sports. In this study, it was hypothesized that total extroverted captains would
outnumber total introverted captains among the four male high school sports. It was also
hypothesized that extroverted personalities would be more prevalent in basketball and
football and introverted personalities would be more prevalent in baseball and golf.
Methodology
Subjects
34 total subjects participated in the study. Subjects were limited to current or past
high school varsity captains within the sports of baseball, basketball, football, and golf.
Athletic captains competing in multiple sports throughout high school participated.
Current or past captains may have been elected by fellow teammates through a voting
process or appointed specifically by their coach. Age limitations and passage of time for
participation in the survey was limited to males 17 to 25 years of age and no more than 7
years removed from their high school graduation. Graduating classes therefore ranged
from the years 2007-2014. Exclusions to this study were anyone falling outside the
determined age and class graduation range, also athletes who were non-captains of
varsity teams were prohibited.
Recruitment of Participants
Participants were contacted through social networking tools Facebook and Twitter
along with the online survey resource, SurveyMonkey. SurveyMonkey utilized a tool for
sharing the research survey’s URL link across the social media platforms of Twitter and
Facebook. By providing the link on these platforms a vast network of potential
participants was reached. Any potential participant seeing the survey link was able to
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instantly view and complete the survey. These participants also shared the survey URL
link amongst their social media networks, creating an even wider network of potential
subjects. Athletes outside of high school who fit the age range and were presently
competing at the collegiate level with teammates of similar ages were contacted in order
to further spread awareness of the survey. Utilization of these resources provided the
overall total quantity of participants needed to conduct the study. Subjects were required
to confirm their eligibility by stating they participated in one of the four required sports
as an elected or appointed captain, and their graduating class date met the criteria for
participation within the study. This recruitment process ensured the requirements for the
survey were sufficiently met, while generating responses from an adequate amount of
former captains of high school athletic teams among the four sports tested.
Testing Measurements
A survey was utilized to determine participant’s levels of introversion,
extroversion, and ambiversion. The 18 question survey for testing introversion,
ambiversion, and extroversion levels, created by Dr. James C. McCroskey and Virginia
P. Richmond PH.D., (1998) was electronically distributed to participants through the
online survey hosting website Survey Monkey. The surveys reliability and validity was
stated on Dr. McCroskey’s website as follows:
“This introversion scale was developed by McCroskey to be distinct from
measures of communication apprehension. An examination of the literature on
introversion indicated that other introversions scales have included items that
were tapping apprehension about communication. Items were drawn from the
work of Eysenck, with items which referenced communication excluded. This
permits the measurement of introversion without the contamination of
communication apprehension items and allows the examination of both
introversion and communication apprehension as predictors of communication
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behaviors independently of each other. The correlations of this measure with the
PRCA-24 have been around .30. Alpha reliability estimates have been above .80.
Items to measure neuroticism are used as filler items and are not scored with the
introversion items” (McCroskey).
Participants answered a range of questions pertaining to levels of emotion in certain types
of social interactions while also taking into account the level of comfort individuals have
in these settings. Participant’s answered questions ranging from a scale of 1-5. 1 on the
scale represented strongly disagrees and 5 represented strongly agree. The results of the
survey were calculated in order to determine where the participant fell on the
introversion/extroversion scale. These steps were detailed on the survey as follows:
“To determine your score on the Introversion Scale, complete the following steps:
Step 1. Add scores for items 1 & 4
Step 2. Add the scores for items 2, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14, 16, & 18
Step 3. Complete the following formula:
Introversion = 12 - Total from Step 1 + Total from Step 2 (your score should be
between 12 and 60. If you compute a score outside that range, you have made a
mistake in computing the score. Note: Items 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, and 17 are not used in
computing your introversion scale. Individuals scoring above 48 are highly
introverted; those scoring below 24 have low introversion (are extraverted).
Those scoring between 24 and 48 are in the moderate range.) “
The formula’s total accumulated score must have fell within the range of 12-60 or the
scoring was deemed to be done incorrectly. Participants scoring 21-27 are considered
introverted and above 28 are considered highly introverted. Participants scoring 20 and
below are considered extroverted. Scores in the 24-48 range were considered moderate
(McCroskey). Due to the majority of scores falling in this general “moderate” range and
the scale not specifically implying what exactly this entailed in regards to the level of
introversion and extroversion, modifications to the scaling were made.
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The score of 36 was deemed to be the deciding point between introversion and
extroversion levels because the number was 12 units from the highest of the “moderate”
range (48) and the lowest (24). Therefore the score of 12 remained the lowest score
possible, representing extreme extroversion, and 60 remained the highest, representing
extreme introversion. As a result the new scaling for scores falling from 12-24 was
labeled as being highly extroverted, scores 25-35 represented moderate extroversion, a
score of 36 pure ambiversion, 37-48 represented moderate introversion and 49-60
represented high introversion.
Participants were not required to compute their own scores as it was assumed the
amount of time required to do so would turn away potential participants, therefore the
calculation was an optional selection at the conclusion of the survey. However due to the
anonymous nature of the survey, participants were made aware their score would not be
available if they left the option uncompleted. Scores left blank were able to be calculated
as SurveyMonkey allowed for individual responses to be viewed. Therefore, the majority
of personality scores were totaled by hand. Anonymity remained as surveys were
unidentifiable upon submission. Electronic distribution enabled surveys to be efficiently
conducted and returned upon completion, while also allowing for individual responses
and final scores to be analyzed.
Analysis
Statistical data analysis was utilized in order to evaluate the amount of introverted
participants compared to extroverted participants among the four high school athletics of
football, baseball, basketball, and golf. Microsoft Excel was utilized in order to organize
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survey scores and categorize them by sport and level of personality. Excel was also used
to create bar graphs and tables in order to better visualize data. The analytical statistic
software SPSS compare and contrast the introverted participants to the extroverted
participants within the study. Descriptive statistics in SPSS were conducted in order to
analyze the means and standard deviations amongst categories.
Results
General Subject Results
26 surveys were submitted through SurveyMonkey. The 26 submitted surveys
yielded 34 subjects (n=34) due to multi-sport participation. Participants ranged from ages
17 to 25 years of age and graduating classes of 2007 to 2013. The 34 subjects were
varsity captains in each of the four sports measured (baseball, basketball, golf, and
baseball). Total extroverts amounted to 29, introverts totaled 3, and ambiverts 2.
Descriptive statistics and percentage of total introverts and extroverts is represented in
table 1. The average survey score was 28.88(SD=5.18). Mean scores for each sport fell
on the extroverted side of the scale represented in figures 1-4.
(Table 1)
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Results by Sport
Baseball
9 subjects (n=9) consisted of varsity captains in the sport of baseball. All 9
subjects were determined to be extroverted (M=29.00, SD=3.74). Individual subject
scores are represented in fig 1.
(Figure 1)
Basketball
10 subjects (n=10) represented the sport of basketball in the survey (M=26.40,
SD=5.42) 9 subjects were determined to be extroverted and 1 subject was ambiverted.
Individual subject scores are represented in fig 2.
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(Figure 2)
Football
11 subjects (n=11) consisted of varsity football captains (M= 29.73, SD=5.52). 11
were considered extroverted, 1 introverted, and 1 ambiverted. Individual responses are
represented in fig 3.
(Figure 3)
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Golf
4 subjects (n=4) consisted of golf varsity captains (M=32.50, SD=5.26). 2
subjects were scored as extroverted, the remaining 2 scored as introverted. Individual
responses are represented in fig 4.
(Figure 4)
Discussion
As previously stated, it was hypothesized that total extroverted captains would
outnumber total introverted captains among the four male high school sports. The results
of the survey scores indicated hypothesis 1 to be true. Total extroverted captains (n=29)
outnumbered introverted (n=3) and ambiverted (n=2). These results suggest extroverted
personality types to be prevalent throughout male high school varsity sports. Literature
mentioned in the introduction (Grant, Gino & Hoffman, 2011) regarding the extroverted
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personality type being the prevalent personality type amongst managers and executives
within the business industry suggested that these results should be assumed to be
expected. Presently it could be assumed the majority of leadership positions within male
high school sport consist of extroverted personality types.
It was also hypothesized that extroverted personalities would be more prevalent in
basketball and football and introverted personalities would be more prevalent in baseball
and golf. The reason for this hypothesis was previous research mentioned on sport
preference amongst certain personality types. Extroverted personalities showed a
preference for high contact sports with unstable environments (Football/Basketball) and
introverts toward low contact stable environments (Golf) (Barker & Adams, 2010).
Baseball was placed in the golf grouping due to its slow paced nature and low levels of
contact. The resulting data suggests the second hypothesis to be false. The total amount
of extroverted personality types in basketball/football (n=18) outnumbered the
introverted/ambiverted personality types (n=3). However, baseball/golf extroverts
(n=11) outnumbered introverts/ambiverts (n=2). The sport of golf had the most amount of
introverted captains (n=2) compared to the total participants (n=4) indicating a possible
connection between introversion and golf, as previous research would suggest (Barker &
Adams, 2010). Future research may find a correlation between introversion and golf
captains.
Overall the mean scores of the 34 subjects totaled 28.88, which indicates
extroverted personalities to be the dominate personality amongst varsity captains within
the study. Extroverts (85.3%) outnumbered introverts/ambiverts (14.7%). The large
discrepancy amongst the results may be attributed to the small sample size of total
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subjects. Also general perceptions and limitations when taking a personality test for
certain individuals may factor into the data becoming skewed further into the direction of
the extroverted personality type. Personality testing for introversion and extroversion
consists of questions relating to social situations and comfort levels interacting within
these situations. The personal nature of these questions along with the idea of
extroversion being the ideal type of personality within popular culture may lead to survey
participants subconsciously feeling they should answer certain questions with extroverted
answers. The large disparity between extroverts and introverts in captain positions within
male high school sport may suggest a need for coaches to reconsider which personality
type they are electing or assigning to positions of leadership.
A possible bias towards the extroverted personality type may be interpreted from
this data. The “halo effect” (Grant, Gino & Hofmann, 2011) may be attributed to varsity
athletes or coaches appointing those they feel are the most charismatic and outspoken, but
these personality traits are not synonymous with absolute ideal leadership ability or
strength. Coaches within high school athletics should evaluate all types of personality
when electing or appointing varsity athletes to the positions of captain within teams.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was the identification and quantification of introversion
and extroversion levels amongst male varsity captains within the high school athletics
setting. The study pertained to four male high school sports including football, basketball,
baseball, and golf. An analysis of the 34 participating subjects within the survey
determined the following conclusions to be made.
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In conclusion, extroverted personality types are the dominant personality amongst
high school sport (n=29>n=5). Survey scores indicate extroverted leadership to be
prevalent within the sports of baseball, basketball, and football. Data provided within the
sport of golf indicates further analysis may be needed as introverts (n=2) equaled
extroverts (n=2). Mean survey scores (table 1) determined captains in each sport type to
fall towards the extroverted side of the intro/extroversion scale. Small sample size greatly
affects any definitive conclusion to be made regarding personality type within high
school athletic leadership. Currently very limited research regarding personality types
and captains of athletics teams exists. Research within the business industry provides
framework for future research within athletics. Future research should focus on pros and
cons of intro/extroversion in athletic leaders along with coaches’ preference for
extroverted personality types in captains over introverted personality types.
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References
2012-13 HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS PARTICIPATION SURVEY. (2013, January 1).
National Federation of State High School Associations . Retrieved January 1,
2014, from http://www.nfhs.org/content.aspx?id=3282
Barker, R., & Adams, M. (2010). Psychology for Sports Performance. BTEC level 3
national sport (3rd ed.)Unit 17 pgs 1-42. London: Edexcel.
Benziger, K. (2014). Retrieved from http://www.benziger.org/articlesIng/?p=30
Beck, H. (2014, April 15). How the Bulls Overcame the Loss of D-Rose, Became the
Team No One Wants to Face. Bleacher Report. Retrieved April 21, 2014, from
http://bleacherreport.com/articles/2028010-how-the-bulls-overcame-the-loss-of-drose-became-the-team-no-one-wants-to-face
Cain, Susan. (2012) Quiet: the power of introverts in a world that can't stop talking New
York : Crown Publishers, pgs 9-12.
Cohen, D., & Schmidt, J. P. (1979). Ambiversion: Characteristics of Midrange
Responders on the Introversion-Extraversion Continuum. Journal Of Personality
Assessment, 43(5), 514.
Grant, A. M., Gino, F., & Hofmann, D. A. (2011). REVERSING THE EXTRAVERTED
LEADERSHIP ADVANTAGE: THE ROLE OF EMPLOYEE PROACTIVITY.
Academy Of Management Journal, 54(3), 528-550.
doi:10.5465/AMJ.2011.61968043
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Hagey, D. K. (2009). Personality Type and Leadership. U.S. Army Medical Department
Journal, 24-26.
McCroskey, J. C. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.jamescmccroskey.com/
Opt, S. K., & Loffredo, D. A. (2003). Communicator Image and Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Extroversion-Introversion. Journal Of Psychology, 137(6), 560-568.
Raglin, J. S. (2001). Psychological Factors in Sport Performance: The Mental Health Model
Revisited. Sports Medicine, 31(12), 875-890.
Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2011). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
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APPENDIX A
Research Survey
Introversion Scale
Directions: Below are eighteen statements that people sometimes make about themselves.
Please indicate whether or not you believe each statement applies to you by marking
whether you: Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree 1 2 3 4 5
_____1. Are you inclined to keep in the background on social occasions?
_____2. Do you like to mix socially with people?
_____3. Do you sometimes feel happy, sometimes depressed, without any apparent
reason?
_____4. Are you inclined to limit your acquaintances to a select few?
_____5. Do you like to have many social engagements?
_____6. Do you have frequent ups and downs in mood, either with or without apparent
cause?
_____7. Would you rate yourself as a happy-go-lucky individual?
_____8. Can you usually let yourself go and have a good time at a party?
_____9. Are you inclined to be moody?
_____10. Would you be very unhappy if you were prevented from making numerous
social contacts?
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_____11. Do you usually take the initiative in making new friends?
_____12. Does your mind often wander while you are trying to concentrate?
_____13. Do you like to play pranks upon others?
_____14. Are you usually a “good mixer?”
_____15. Are you sometimes bubbling over with energy and sometimes very sluggish?
_____16. Do you often “have the time of your life” at social affairs?
_____17. Are you frequently “lost in thought” even when you should be taking part in a
conversation?
_____18. Do you derive more satisfaction from social activities than from anything else?
Scoring: To determine your score on the Introversion Scale, complete the following
steps:
Step 1. Add scores for items 1 & 4
Step 2. Add the scores for items 2, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14, 16, & 18
Step 3. Complete the following formula:
Introversion = 12 - Total from Step 1 + Total from Step 2
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KSS-5000 RESEARCH MANUSCRIPT
Your score should be between 12 and 60. If you compute a score outside that range, you
have made a mistake in computing the score. Note: Items 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, and 17 are not
used in computing your introversion scale.Individuals scoring above 48 are highly
introverted; those scoring below 24 have low introversion (are extraverted). Those
scoring between 24 and 48 are in the moderate range.
Sources:
Drawn from items recommended by:
Eysenck, H. J. (1970). Readings in extraversion-introversion: Volume I. New York:
Wiley-Interscience.
Eysenck, H. J. (1971). Readings in extraversion-introversion: Volume II. New York:
Wiley-Interscience.
Note: Items 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, and 17 are not scored. They are items recommended by
Eysenck for measuring neuroticism.
Source:
McCroskey, J. C. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.jamescmccroskey.com/
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