CH. 23 – The Age of Nation-States
KEY IDEAS
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The Crimean War (1853-56)
Italian and German unification
Franco Prussian War (1870-71)
France shifts from a liberal empire to the Third Republic
Emergence of Austria-Hungary as a dual monarchy
Serf emancipation in Russia
Great Britain as an example of a liberal state
o British conflict with Irish nationalists
Crimean War (1853-56)
Franco-Prussian War (1870-71)
The Ottoman Empire gave France Catholic shrines in the Holy Land
instead of Russia. This sparked a rivalry, and in 1853 the Ottoman
Empire declared war on Russia. France and Britain helped the OE
fight Russia. Much to Russia’s disappointment, Austria and Prussia
remained neutral. Russia lost, which damaged their image.
France was eager to go to war against Prussia. They were easily
defeated and had to surrender land in southern Germany.
Completed the unification of Germany.
"Ems Telegram": Written by William I to France. Bismarck
manipulated the telegram to make it appear the William was
insulting the French. France took it very seriously and declared war
on Prussia. Played right into Bismarck’s hands, as he knew war was
the key to German unification.
Treaty of Paris: Concluded the Crimean War. Forced Russia to give
up land near the mouth of the Danube River and recognize
neutrality of the Black Sea. They also had to surrender claims to
Christians living in the Ottoman Empire. The treaty also destroyed
the Concert of Europe.
Hall of Mirrors at Versailles: Where France signed the treaty ending
the Franco-Prussian war. Later on, France will make Germany sign
the treaty ending WWI in this very hall. Exemplifies the deep-rooted
hatred between France and Germany.
France: Empirethe Third Republic
Napoleon III became increasingly liberal after 1850.
Napoleon’s empire permitted free trade with Britain and
freer debate in legislative bodies. Allowed labor unions and
relaxed censorship laws. Agreed to a liberal constitution that
gave responsibility for legislature to ministers.
The Habsburgs: Empirethe Dual Monarchy
Reichsrat: The bicameral parliament in the Hapsburg Empire.
The emperor appointed the Upper Chamber, and the Lower
Chamber was indirectly elected. The Magyars opposed this
system because it gave more power to the emperor than to
them.
Paris Commune: Parisians resented the monarchy. The
Commune wanted to make Paris separate from the state of
France. However, the movement was quickly put down and
Paris was restored.
Ausgleich of 1867: Compromise brought forth by the Magyars
that proposed a dual monarchy between Austria and
Hungary. Came around after the Austrian army was defeated
by Prussia. Francis Joseph didn’t want anymore fighting so he
agreed to cooperate with the Magyars’ demands.
Dreyfus Affair: General Dreyfus was accused of treason,
mainly because he was a German-Jew (pretty much the worst
combo you could be in 19th century France). In truth, the
evidence used against him was forged. However, he was
ultimately convicted and sent to Devils Island. He was
brought back to France for a second trial but was again found
guilty. Was eventually pardoned and even volunteered to
fight for France in WWI.
After the dual monarchy recognized Hungary, other ethnic
groups also wanted independence. Austria quickly refused
because they didn’t want to lose any more influence. Modern
day Czech Republic, Austria, and Hungary. In this area, ethnic
tensions were riding very high. Dubbed a powder keg because
it was volatile and bound to blow up at any moment.
Italian Unification
German Unification
Romantic Republicanism: A strategy used to unite the
small principalities in Italy. Following the Congress of
Vienna, secret republic societies began meeting.
Singularly ineffective. But their dreams of nationalism
and republicanism affected Mazzini, who would become
the most influential nationalist leader in Europe.
Otto von Bismarck: Would eventually become prime
minister of Prussia, appointed by William I. Influenced
German unification more than anyone else. Pushed for a
conservative government and more power for the
monarchy to levy taxes. He angered many Prussians, and
after the next election, liberals dominated Parliament.
Decided the only way to end disagreements in Prussia
would be to unify Germany (which he did).
Count Camillo Cavour: Responsible for setting Italy up as
a constitutional monarchy under King Victor Emmanuel II.
He was moderately liberal. Served as prime minister of
Piedmont (Kingdom of Sardinia). Able to achieve
unification through by using both armed forces and
diplomacy.
Danish War (1864): The duchies of Schleswig and Holstein
were ruled by Denmark but technically part of Germany.
With Austria’s help, Bismarck easily gained control of the
territories. Increased Bismarck’s prestige and popularity.
After the war, Bismarck patched up other diplomatic
relationships (agreed to give Venetia to Italy if Italy
supported Bismarck in a possible Austro-Prussian war).
Meeting at Plombieres: After an attempt on Napoleon
III’s life, the emperor met with Cavour. They rode in
carriage so the meeting could be secret. They conspired
to provoke war with Austria, leading to Austria’s defeat.
France agreed in a formal contract on the condition that
they would receive the territories of Nice and Savoy.
Austro-Prussian War (1866): Prussians provoked Austria
into war. Prussia defeated Austria in only seven weeks.
Austria was forced to surrender Venetia and was no
longer considered part of Germany. Prussia became the
dominant power in German politics.
Garibaldi’s Campaign: Attempted to unify Italy. Started in
Sicily (southern Italy) and made his way north. As he
conquered more and more of Italy, his forces met with
Cavour’s. Cavour’s forces had just unified northern Italy,
including the Papal States. Despite wanting a republic,
Garibaldi ultimately chose nationalism over
republicanism. He decided to join with Cavour.
North German Confederation: Austrian-supported states
that were annexed by Prussia. The territory north of the
Main River became the German Confederation.
"Italia Irrredenta": “Unredeemed Italy,” or Trent and
Trieste, two provinces on the border of Italy, but ruled by
Austria. Fueled Franco-Austrian hatred and the desire to
liberate the provinces. Italia Irredenta was the excuse
Italy used to fight in WWI.
"Iron and Blood": Quote from Bismarck. He felt that
democracies and politicians could not solve the great
issues of his day; solutions would come through war.
Shows distrust of majority decisions/republicanism.
Russia: Emancipation and Revolutionary Stirrings
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Alexander II (r. 1855-81) succeeded his father, Nicholas I, on the throne of Russia. Familiar with the difficulties
facing his nation. After seeing what happened to Russia after the Treaty of Paris, he was determined to reform.
Russia was backwards compared to the rest of Europe. There was still a huge gap between peasants and the upper
class with virtually no middle class. The threat of another peasant revolt motivated Alexander II to abolish
serfdom. Despite their emancipation, peasants were still under so many restrictions that their freedom was
limited. Many peasants believed their true freedom was yet to come.
The reformist movements of Western Europe inspired students of Russia. They began to create a social revolution
based on communal living (foreshadows Russian communism). Referred to as populism.
Alexander III (r. 1881-94) took over Russia after the death of his father, Alexander II. His policies weren’t much
different. Favored a strong centralized government. Despite his efforts, his son would find that Russia’s autocracy
would not survive the 20th century.
Great Britain: Toward Democracy
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Queen Victoria (r. 1837-1901) ruled Great Britain with huge success. Britain experienced economic growth and was
involved with no wars. The Gilded Age for Britain.
The Second Reform Act of 1867 expanded the electorate in Britain. Doubled the amount of voters and allowed all
males to vote. However, didn’t lead to much redistribution of seats in Parliament and didn’t help the conservative
party.
Benjamin Disraeli was leader of the conservative party in the House of Commons. Allowed many bills to pass, more
than the liberal party even expected.
William Gladstone helped Britain become more liberal than ever. Opened institutions that had previously been
exclusive to the aristocracy to all classes. Also, there were not longer religious or social requirements for college
anymore.
Parliament disagreed on whether or not to grant Ireland independence (“the Irish Question”). They didn’t want the
idea of independence to spread to other provinces, which caused them to be very cautious.
Home Rule Bill would give Ireland independence. The House of Commons rejected the bill. Gladstone called for
new elections in order to sway the decision. The second time around, the liberals won again, and Ireland stayed
under British control. Finally passed in 1914, but suspended throughout WWI.
The House of Lords Act of 1911 took more power away from the House of Lords. A bill had to be passed three
times in the House of Commons after a veto from the House of Lords in order to become law.