Martin Elvery TMA 6
Personal Identifier: Y9155354
AA309 Culture Identity and Power in the Roman Empire
1
Martin Elvery TMA 6
Personal Identifier: Y9155354
AA309 Culture Identity and Power in the Roman Empire
How much can archaeological evidence tell us about the lives of the inhabitants of the Roman
province of Africa?
In his study on the Roman empire, Colin Wells very clearly separates archaeological evidence
from epigraphic and written evidence such as papyri, coins, inscriptions and ostraca. (Wells, pg42) It
seems that more might be gained by including these epigraphic sources in the archaeological record
since they are usually uncovered as part of an archaeological dig. This essay will therefore consider
any evidence that has been uncovered or preserved by archaeology. It will be necessary to
investigate as wide a range of evidence as possible in order to consider the social status, culture,
beliefs, ethnicity, identity and prosperity of the inhabitants of the province.
One of the most interesting debates here is the extent to which African culture became
assimilated into a dominant Roman culture or to what extent it survived intact under Roman rule.
In terms of religious belief, the archaeological evidence from major towns such as Thugga reveals
something of a fusion of Roman and African cults. Some major temples show evidence of the way in
which Rome Imposed its gods on Africa; The Temple of the Capitoline Triad at Thugga with its
Roman style Corinthian decoration is typical of this, as are the Temple to Augustan Piety in the same
town (VC3, Track 1) and the Capitoline temples at Sbeitla.(Pean, pg.13) However the temple of
Saturn at Thugga was built over the top of the temple to the traditional African deity Baal and the
Temple to Caelestis at Thugga was dedicated to a Roman God but one which had the same powers
as the pre-Roman deity Tannit. (VC3, Track 1) Even the most obviously Roman temple of the
Capitoline Triad has some African elements in that its stonework was constructed in a very African
style. (VC3, Track 1) The problem lies in the difficulty of identifying the benefactors of these temples.
Many of the Latin inscriptions bear seemingly Roman names such as Popeius Rogatus and Lucius
Marcus Simplex, (VC3, Track 1) but these could easily be Africans who had adopted Romanized
names. The temple evidence would seem to indicate that either the purely Roman or Italian settlers
had an important influence on African religion but that they were somewhat sensitive to the culture
of the African inhabitants, or it may suggest that Romanized Africans were attempting to adopt the
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Martin Elvery TMA 6
Personal Identifier: Y9155354
AA309 Culture Identity and Power in the Roman Empire
Roman religion in order to identify themselves with the Roman elites, but sought to preserve some
of their own traditions in the process. However all of this evidence really only indicates the beliefs
of wealthy benefactors of the temples. It tells us little of the religious beliefs of the lower classes or
the people in rural areas. Perhaps more revealing of this are smaller finds such as the terracotta
statue of the Phoenician God Shadrapha- healer of snake bites-from Sousse, (Yacoub, pg.86) and the
Teracotta statue of the Egyptian God Bes. (Yacoub, 82) These small figurines came from tombs and
were meant to protect the deceased, but Mohamed Yacoub points out that despite these examples
of pre-Roman gods, the majority of these figures that have been found conform to Greek and
Hellenistic models. (Yacoub, 82) This would appear to suggest that more Africans were adopting
Romanized culture than were preserving their own cults. However, a certain amount of wealth
would still be required to afford such goods and so this may only reflect the more wealthy
Romanized sections of the population. Equally the nature of the finds may reflect that most come
from the digs that have taken place in large Romanized urban settlements. Also, it is difficult to
define the exact relationship between objects and beliefs.
The archaeological evidence reveals that many Africans wanted to adopt Roman cultural
values and styles. In many of the mosaics classical themes are prominent. In pavements such as the
‘deliverance of Andromeda by Perseus’ from Bulla Reggia for example, a scene from a classical myth
is depicted with classical poses and copied from a proto-type created by the Greek painter Nicias.
(Yacoub, pg. 12) By commissioning such a mosaic, a member of the African elite might be
demonstrating his knowledge of classical myth and his close identity with Roman culture. In other
mosaics a combination of values is evident. For example ‘Cupids and Amphitrite’ from Bulla Reggia
(Block Five, pg.24) Shows an essentially Greco-Roman myth, but with local resonance as Amphitrite
was said to have fled to north Africa. Many mosaics depicted purely local scenes such as those
featuring Nile landscapes from Al Allia. (Yacoub, pg. 28).Though even here some of the figures are
depicted in Roman style togas. Rarely in fact do the mosaics from Africa depict scenes that ignore
Roman culture entirely. This evidence indicates that wealthy Africans came to value Roman culture,
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Martin Elvery TMA 6
Personal Identifier: Y9155354
AA309 Culture Identity and Power in the Roman Empire
dress and identity very strongly. But there is evidence that African cultural elements played a
stronger role in the later imperial period. Later mosaics are less ordered and have more vitality and
movement than the earlier examples which tended to follow Italian designs more closely. (Block
Five, pg.26) This perhaps reflects the growing size ad self confidence of the African elite who no
longer needed to purely ape Roman styles by the second and third centuries. Once again however
this evidence all says little about the cultural identity of any but the most heavily Romanized elite.
Africa contained a diverse mix of ethnic groups from the Punic and Phoenician settlers of
the coastal areas to the Berber tribes of Mauretania and the ancient nomadic inhabitants of Lybia.
These were separate from the ethnic Italians who migrated to Africa after the conquest. A small
number of the finds from North Africa reflect this ethnic diversity. For example a sculpted Samian
Ware vase with the very characteristic head of an African (Yacoub, pg. 91)indicates African identity,
as do the two black limestone sculptures found in the Antoinine baths in Carthage –one depicting a
black African with plaited hair. (Yacoub, pg.42) There are also many examples of votive stelae which
preserve Punic influence both in their triangular shape and in the nature of the figures depicted on
them. One good example is the Neo-Punic votive Stele from El Ksour which depicts an African priest
with two sphinxes. (Yacoub, pg34) It has to be said however that the vast majority of the major finds
from Africa appear to preserve more Roman/Italian ethnicity. The vast majority of the mosaics,
statues and sculptures at the Bardo Museum for example show figures with recognisably Classical
features and dress and often figures from Classical mythology. However this may reflect the fact that
the museum focuses on the most impressive large scale pieces of art which is often the ‘official’ art
produced by the Roman authorities or by heavily Romanized Africans. More focus o smaller or
unofficial evidence such as pottery and grave stelae, can reveal greater evidence of the ethic
diversity that must have existed in reality.
In terms of wealth and social status, there is a lot of archaeological evidence to suggest that
many of the inhabitants of Roman Africa prospered under Roman control. Many of the pot sherds
from the Monte Testaccio in Rome are of African origin and show evidence of the extent of the
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Martin Elvery TMA 6
Personal Identifier: Y9155354
AA309 Culture Identity and Power in the Roman Empire
lucrative trade in olive oil, grain and wine that must have profited the citizens of Africa. Evidence of
marble from the quarries of Numidia can be found across the Roman empire, for example on the
floor of the pantheon in Rome and the redevelopment of the harbour at Carthage also shows
evidence of the extent of this trade. (VC3, Track 4) The large and ostentatious villa houses that
adorned many African towns such as Bulla Reggia -at the heart of the famous wheat growing region
or Campi Magni- do appear to indicate that citizens were able to prosper from the wheat they
produced on their estates. Houses here such as the House of Amphitrite were expensively built with
mosaics, underground rooms and fountains. (Yacoub, pg. 12) When we look at the mosaics that
adorned many of these houses we can see that they often reflect the kind of economic activity that
would have taken place on rural estates. For example mosaics fro Chebba show scenes such as a
peasant picking up olives (Yacoub, pg. 39) and one early fourth century mosaic from Carthage
indicates activities such as harvesting olives, hunting and lambing occurring around a well appointed
villa. (Yacoub, pg.40) Clearly such evidence indicates that villa owners wanted to show off the wealth
and property they had gained through trade with the Roman Empire. It also shows that many
peasants and farm workers gained employment from such prosperity .
However, the extent to which the inhabitants of Africa benefited from economic growth can
be questioned as a proportion of their goods was simply requisitioned by the emperor as a tax in
kind. Also the evidence is representative of those who had succeeded economically under Roman
rule and tells us little of those who were not so prosperous or who lived in fringe areas away from
the main estates ad settlements. It should also be noted that most of the mosaics representing
scenes of real economic activity date from the third and fourth centuries AD. This would appear to
indicate that African citizens grew in prosperity over time.
Inscriptions are a good source of archaeological evidence for revealing the social status of
Africans under Roman rule. One set of letters inscribed in bronze tablets from Africa contains letters
written by the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus to the governor of Mauretania Tingitana,
granting Roman citizenship to one Julianus and his descendents. (Lewis and Reinhold, pg.56) This is
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Martin Elvery TMA 6
Personal Identifier: Y9155354
AA309 Culture Identity and Power in the Roman Empire
typical of a large number of inscriptions found in Africa indicating that growing numbers of Africans
sought -and were granted- Roman citizenship in the second and third centuries AD. Interestingly
though the inscription reveals that citizenship would only be granted to those who were of high
social status and supportive of Roman interests. We are told that ‘since you affirm that he is one of
the leading men of his people and is most loyal in his ready assistance to our interests.‘(Lewis and
Reinhold, pg.56) Equally the inscription suggests that many Africans were not deemed worthy of
citizenship: ‘and since we do not think that any clans among the Zegrensians can make equal
assertions.’ (Lewis and Reinhold, pg.56) This is interesting as it reveals that citizenship was highly
prized by the African elites and had to be earned in the eyes of Rome and that many Africans simply
did not qualify and so were not able to raise their status under Roman rule. The inscription is also
revealing because it suggests that Rome attempted to encourage Africans to emulate those who had
been granted citizenship: ‘although we desire that very many may be impelled by the honour
conferred upon his house to emulate Julianus.’ (Lewis and Reinhold, pg.56)
Other evidence from mosaics also indicates the way that wealthy Africans wished to gain and
present themselves as Roman citizens to display their high social status. For example, the mosaic
from Sousse showing a man holding scrolls of the Aeneid and accompanied by two muses, is almost
certainly the owner of the house attempting to demonstrate the extent of his affinity with Roman
culture and thus high society. The toga with its purple stripe also indicates senatorial status although
the face of the figure looks African. (Yacoub, pg.34) Overall the evidence suggests that an elite group
of Africans sought to improve their social status by gaining Roman citizenship, supporting imperial
policy and by identifying themselves with Roman cultural traits. The success of the status they
achieved is indicated by the opulence of the houses they were able to build in towns such as Bulla
Reggia. We can tell that the size and importance of this elite was increasing, simply by the massive
surge in building benefactions that took place across Africa in the late second century. However , the
material evidence tells us little about the extent of social advancement for Africans or Roman
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Martin Elvery TMA 6
Personal Identifier: Y9155354
AA309 Culture Identity and Power in the Roman Empire
immigrants of lower social status, nomadic groups or those living outside the main centres of
settlement.
Overall the archaeology can reveal something of the ethnic diversity, social status, wealth
and cultural identity of Africans under the Roman empire, but only if one focuses on the limitations
of the evidence. It is almost as helpful to read into what it does not tell us as most of the evidence
reflects the views of the highly Romanized minority. We also have to be aware of how the nature of
the evidence changes over the time period of Roman control. In many ways the archaeological
record reveals the pre-occupations of the European archaeologists who dug the major sites in their
quest to present the most obvious and evocative signs of imperial society. Much more work needs to
be done in fringe areas and amongst minority ethnic groups to gain a more realistic understanding of
the lives of Africans under Roman rule in the broadest sense.
Words: 2154
Bibliography:
Hornblower S. and Spawnforth A. (eds) (1998) The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilisation,
Oxford: Oxford University Press
Illustrations Book, (The Open University, Milton Keynes, 1999)
Offprints Book, (The Open University, Milton Keynes, 1999)
Pean R., Romano-African Tunisia, (Regie 3, La Soukra, 2002)
Perkins P. and James P, Block Five, Roman North Africa, (The Open University, Milton Keynes,
2000)
Supplementary Texts, (The Open University, Milton Keynes, 1999)
VC3: Sections 1-4 (The Open University 2006)
Yacoub, M. Stone Paintings, the Mosaics of the Bardo Museum, (Contraste Editions, Sousse, 2003)
Yacoub, M, Marvels of the Bardo Museum, (Contraste, Editions, Sousse, 2005)
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Martin Elvery TMA 6
Personal Identifier: Y9155354
AA309 Culture Identity and Power in the Roman Empire
8