Examination training on
The Isle of Man @ Ballakermeen
AQA A2 Geography
May 2015
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01. Figure 1a and 1b show information relating to Japan and the Tohoku earthquake 2011.
Describe the tectonic setting shown in Figure 1(a) and relate the intensity of the Tohoku
earthquake shown in Figure 1(b) to that setting.
(7 marks)
Level 2 (5-7 marks) (mid point 6)
Some sophistication of description and statement of relationship. Clear interpretation and/or
description/reasoning, together with evidence of geographical thinking.
Candidate A
Japan sits on two continental plates - the northern part of the country lies on the North
American plate, whilst the south is on the Eurasian plate. To the east of Japan are two
oceanic plates - in the north is the Pacific plate, and to the south lies the Philippine plate.
The two oceanic plates are both moving in a generally westward direction at a rate of a few
centimetres per year. The zones at which the plates collide lie on the seabed to the east of
Japan (Figure 1a) and are marked by deep ocean trenches. At this point the oceanic plates
are being forced under the continental plates - subduction - and earthquakes take place
along such a tectonic boundary.
The earthquake off Sendai in Tohoku in 2011 occurred on the fault that marks the boundary
between the Pacific plate to the east and the North American plate to the west - 130km to
the east of the port of Sendai. The impact of the earthquake, as measured by the MMI scale
on Figure 1b, was greatest all along the 400km east coastline of Tohoku in a thin band
parallel to the coast, north and south of Sendai. The intensity then reduced inland and to
the west in a fairly uniform manner, and it also decreased to the south west. There is
therefore a strong relation of the intensity of the earthquake to the tectonic setting. This
may be due to the fact that a major tsunami was generated by the earthquake, though I am
not sure if this is measured by the Mercalli scale.
02. Describe the characteristics of, and explain the formation of, deep sea trenches and
island arcs.
(8 marks)
Level 2 (5-8 marks) (mid point 6)
Detailed statements of characteristics and reasoning, possibly with some use of supportive
material. Full mark answers show breadth of knowledge and some balance between
landforms.
An ocean trench is a narrow, deep depression in the ocean floor which corresponds with the
subduction zone associated with convergent margins or destructive plate boundaries. The
Marianas Trench, on the western margin of the Pacific Ocean, extends to depths below
11000 metres. They are typically arc-shaped and correlate with the location of deep focus
earthquakes, although intermediate and shallow earthquakes are also formed. These form
on the margin of the trench towards the line of volcanic islands which form the island arc.
Examples include the Chile-Peru Trench where the Nazca Plate (oceanic) subducts beneath
the South American Plate (continental) and the Japan Trench where the Pacific Plate
(oceanic) subducts beneath the Eurasian Plate (continental).
In oceans where subduction takes place, the convergence of the plates takes place below
sea level. The sinking lithosphere is much colder than the asthenosphere and it is brittle. As
stresses increase the sudden failure of the lithosphere triggers earthquakes along the line of
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the subducting plate. This zone of subduction, of varying angle, is called the Benioff Zone.
When the upper surface of the sinking lithosphere has reached a depth in the
asthenosphere where the temperature is about 1400OC, the rocks making up the
lithosphere begin to soften and melt. As these are of lower density than the surrounding
asthenosphere, as they melt they rise towards the surface as plutons of magma. These
produce volcanoes on the surface of the non-subducting plate, fed by the material from the
subducting lithosphere. The rising magma consists of andesitic lava from the melting plate.
It creates complex, composite, explosive volcanoes.
An island arc is a chain of such volcanic islands located on the continental side of an ocean
trench. This situation can be found in the western Pacific Ocean where the islands which
make up the Aleutians, Japan and the Philippines are island arcs.
This island arc of volcanic activity is parallel with the line of the plate boundary and the
subduction zone. The displacement of the island arc from the line of subduction depends
upon the angle of the Benioff Zone; the steeper the angle the closer the island arc to the
line of subduction. A convergence rate of 30mm/yr appears to be required to produce the
whole range of these features.
03. Discuss the evidence for tectonic plate movement.
(10 marks)
(03) With reference to two volcanic events that you have studied from contrasting areas
of the world, compare the ways in which volcanoes and their impacts have been
managed. (10 marks)
Level 2 (5-8): specific statements of management strategies which can be clearly attributed
to named areas and/or volcanoes access this level. Comparison is clear and purposeful.
Level 3 (9-10): a fully developed answer, with good elaboration of the management strategy
of two volcanic events. A rounded answer with a full comparison of the two events.
Volcanoes can be managed in three ways: through reducing vulnerability of potential
victims; through modifying the severity of the event and through reducing the losses
suffered by people and the areas affected. The eruption of Mount St Helens is a good
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example of how management has succeeded in these areas. The comparable eruption of
Nevada del Ruiz is the opposite.
Vulnerability modification was exceptionally efficient in the USA before Mt St Helens. USGS
scientists acknowledged the likelihood of an eruption as earthquakes increased and the
water table level began to fall. They distributed warnings to the authorities who organised
and evacuation to 20 km in all directions. This ‘exclusion zone’ reduced the death toll from a
potential hundreds to just 57. It was also aided in that locals were aware of volcanic threats
because of a good education system and people trusted the scientists and government in
their decision.
Nevada de Ruiz did not receive sufficient or comparable vulnerability modification. Although
US scientists warned both the locals in the town of Armero and officials in the local
government that an eruption was imminent, locals refused to believe that their mountain
could hurt them and officials dismissed advice as attempts to lower property prices.
Consequently 23000 people died in the eruption as no evacuation was undertaken. The lack
of education of the locals and official xenophobia and distrust meant catastrophic damage
took place.
Even modification in both cases was minimal because the most severe effects of a volcanic
eruption, pyroclastic flows and lahars are almost impossible to stop with current building
materials and diversion techniques. Nevertheless, had the buildings in Armero been better
built, some may have withstood the lahar.
Loss modification through aid (short term and longer term) was also far more efficient at Mt
St Helens. The US government provided a package of $631 million to go to the rebuilding
and sustaining of businesses that were hit by the eruption. This virtually covered the
economic damages of the eruption. The National Guard were also quick to arrive rescuing
the stranded by air. Indeed the recovery though swift was aided by the initial precautions
taken.
At Nevada del Ruiz no government bailout was provided and authorities took up to 3 days to
arrive. In this time looters and kidnappers took advantage of the local chaos. On arrival
relief was slowed by broken equipment and poor coordination. This has meant that the area
has not yet fully recovered even now. Evidently the USA handled its eruption far better than
Colombia and this was due to both government efficiency and public education, both of
which were aided by the USA’s super wealth.
10. Figure 4 shows information on the Lower Marsh Regeneration Project in Lambeth,
south London. Comment on the information shown. (7 marks)
Level 2 (5-7 marks)
Comments that go beyond the information in the figure, ie there is some intellectual
processing on what lies behind, or can be extrapolated from, the information given, or some
attempt to categorise.
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Regeneration is carried out in an area in order to improve present and build new housing
and other buildings which will encourage the moving of both businesses and people into the
area which will in turn stimulate economic growth. The environment will also be improved
in order to promote a pleasant atmosphere to live and work in.
The regeneration project in Lambeth in south London will encourage greater economic
development by creating 21 large market pitches. This will allow local tradesmen to sell and
trade their goods whilst also encouraging local residents to buy locally sourced goods and
support independent retailers rather that large chain supermarkets. By improving the local
environment the partnership scheme will encourage a better living and shopping
environment which in turn will encourage more to visit the area. By creating pedestrianised
areas emissions of CO2 into the atmosphere will be reduced whilst also improving the air
quality of the local area. Safety will be improved by a reduced number of vehicles in the
centre as well as the addition of street lighting which will offer the perceived sense of
increased safety whilst deterring criminals, drug dealers and prostitutes at night, all
contributing to a more pleasant environment.
Finally Figure 4 does not show any plans to redevelop the station (Waterloo) itself, which is
a flaw in my opinion as the train station is likely to be the largest reason why consumers
enter the area however no efforts are being made to develop it despite the involvement of
Network rail and Transport for London. Therefore from Figure 4 I believe the scheme is
flawed by not having relevant data.
(11) Outline characteristic strategies of waste management in urban areas. (8 marks)
Level 1 (1-4): simple generalised statements of management with no depth or detail, and not
attributed to any named area. One strategy only – max L1
Level 2 (5-8): more specific and sophisticated statements of management which may be
attributed to a named area, or demonstrate greater depth of understanding and/or
knowledge.
There are many strategies for waste management in urban areas and these can be
understood using examples. In Sheffield residents are provided with a black bin for
household waste which is collected every week and a blue bin for bottles and a blue box for
paper which is collected fortnightly. These are recycled. This immediately encourages
residents to recycle and separate their waste. Some of the household rubbish is dumped at
several landfill sites dotted around the outskirts of the city. These are very harmful to the
environment and are quite an eyesore to any passer-by.
But the rest is taken to a large incinerator run by Veolia in the centre of the city – close to
the Park Hill flats in fact – to be burnt and used to generate electricity. The thousands of
tonnes of waste that pass through the incinerator each day provides electricity for many
prominent buildings in Sheffield such as the Town Hall and Ponds Forge swimming pool. This
is a very effective way of managing waste as there is no left over materials.
Curitiba also has a clever strategy for waste management. They offer a system know as the
Green Exchange where recycled waste is exchanged for bus tickets or fruit. This is offered to
the poorer residents of the city. Once a week a dustbin lorry will park and residents then
queue to exchange the materials they have recycled into separate sections for bus tickets or
fruit which ever they feel is important to them. This gives the poorer residents a sense of
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satisfaction. The sorted materials are then recycled and turned into new products. This
makes for a very sustainable waste management strategy. (8)
(12) Evaluate the success of one or more partnership scheme(s) in the regeneration of
urban areas. (10 marks)
Level 2 (5-8): specific descriptive statements of a partnership scheme(s), some of which can
be clearly attributed to a named example. Assessment is tentative and implicit.
Level 3 (9-10): a fully developed answer, with good elaboration and clear detail of the
partnership scheme(s). Assessment is explicit.
One partnership scheme I have studied is the regeneration of Sheffield city centre. The
scheme was set up by Creative Sheffield, Sheffield City Council, Yorkshire Forward and
English Heritage all with the same goal to improve the appearance of the city centre. Many
areas such as Sheaf Square, Tudor Square, the Winter Gardens and the Peace Gardens were
all regenerated to give the city a more modern look. One of the more successful areas
completed is outside the railway station. A water fountain feature and a long steel blade
fountain were built which creates a great first impression for people coming to the city by
the train. Several thousand pounds were provided by Yorkshire Forward to complete the
square and it was opened in 2009.
Another success was the creation of the Gold Route. This is a walk from the railway station
to the end of Division Street that allows visitors to see all the newly generated areas of the
centre. The walk is lit and has CCTV cameras making it safe to walk both day and night. The
scheme has received many awards and good reviews and has helped visitor numbers to the
city to increase. Another better known partnership is that of the Park Hill flats which
overlook the city centre. These council flats are the largest Grade 2 listed building in the
country and over the past few years had become very rundown. Urban Splash, Creative
Sheffield and Yorkshire Forward (YF) again partnered together to regenerate the flats into
modern and stylish looking apartments to attract a range of residents. Glass lifts and
colourful walls make for a pleasing exterior. YF granted over £200000 to complete the work
and currently over 100 of the flats are available to buy. They range from £80000 to over
£110000 showing that Urban Splash are confident they will sell. Park Hill flats have had a
great deal of interest from people wanting to buy and rent showing that the partnership
scheme is a success. Once the regenerated flats have been bought more can be revamped
until all of the blocks have been completed.
16. Study Figure 6 which shows an area in a conflict zone. Describe and comment on the
area shown. (7 marks)
Level 2 (5-7 marks) (mid point 6)
More detailed comment with appropriate description.
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The area in the photograph shows a semi-arid area with a village made of straw huts and
compounds around them. The area is semi-desert as you can see that the majority of the
land is very barren and sandy, and yet there are quite a few trees around. This must be an
area where water occurs close to the surface allowing the trees to grow.
However in the village one set of houses and the compound are ablaze. This could be a
natural fire, but it is more likely to have been caused deliberately, especially as it is a conflict
zone. As this is a conflict zone, it would be reasonable to suggest that some guerrillas have
set this area on fire to take control of the area by possibly burning the house of the leader of
the community. There are few if any people around, so I can suggest that the people have
moved out either by be kidnapped as happened recently in northern Nigeria - hundreds of
girls were abducted by a group called Boko Haram - or they have fled out of fear.
You can see tracks both behind and in front of the compound on fire. These are the tracks
that rebels or guerrillas will have used when they came to the village on 4x4 trucks armed
with Kalashnikov rifles. This could have been people like the Janjaweed in Darfur in Sudan. It
is likely that they will have killed people and taken away any animals in the village.
(17) Outline processes by which conflict resolution can take place. (8 marks)
Level 2 (5-8): detailed, specific and/or sophisticated processes that clearly apply to conflict
resolution. A greater range of processes will move the answer up the level, as will
recognition of the complexity of the topic.
Conflict resolution can take place in many different ways depending on the scale of the
conflict. Local conflicts tend to be over the use of local resources and land use and the UK
government have a planning permission scheme to try and minimise conflict. Plans for
development in an area such as Derry Hill in Menston where constructors hope to create 40
new homes are displayed for an area and local people are encouraged to give their views on
the matter. All the individual views will be weighed up and assessed by an inspector before
planning permission is granted or declined. If planning permission is granted but there is still
strong opposition to the plans the government can call in the application and send it to a
tribunal whose job it is to assess whether the benefits of the plans outweigh the losses or
not. In some cases, such as Whinash wind farm in the Lake District where plans were
submitted for 4 new turbines, the plan may be rejected by the tribunal though planning
permission was earlier granted.
On an international scale larger conflicts may require international intervention by groups
such as the UN or NATO to be resolved. The groups may send peacekeepers into war torn
areas to try and instigate peace or may have to take a harder line on the conflict for
example in 2012 when NATO officiated air strikes on Libya in an attempt to help rebels in
the country overthrow Colonel Gaddafi and the country’s regime. On a slightly smaller scale
countries may ally with each other over a conflict such as when Russia allied with South
Ossetia to help it gain independence from Georgia following a short war in 2008. (8)
(18) With reference to one recent major international conflict, discuss the impact of the
conflict on the environment of the area affected. (10 marks)
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04. Figure 2 shows the Accumulated Cyclone Energy (ACE), a measure of the intensity of
tropical revolving storms, in the North Atlantic Ocean area between 1940 and 2010.
Describe and comment on the information shown.
(7 marks)
Level 2 (5-7 marks) (mid point 6)
Good description of overall trends (which may include use of data to support such as
manipulation and anomalies) with appropriate comment.
Although the data shown has a very weak correlation in terms of the average Accumulated
Cyclone Energy (ACE), it does appear to be a slight positive correlation in terms of energy
increasing over the years with some troughs signalling periods of low energy. For example
the average ACE in 1940 was about 60 ACE in comparison to 2010 when it was about 115
ACE, an increase of about 90% in energy. This could roughly be due to the increase in sea
temperatures as a result of global warming as greenhouse gases are increasing preventing
outgoing long wave infrared radiation leaving the atmosphere so are re-emitted back to the
earth’s surface increasing the global temperatures by about 0.7C over the last century.
However there are peaks and troughs that do not fit with this argument. For example, 2005
saw the greatest ACE with about 245 with 1950 the second largest at about 240. The year
with the lowest ACE was 1981 with about an average of 20 ACE. This could be due to
significantly lower than average sea temperatures as a result in an unusual dip in the jet
stream causing it to be pulled further south in the northern hemisphere and further north in
the southern hemisphere bringing with it the influence of polar maritime and arctic
maritime air masses bringing much cool conditions to areas that experience cyclonic
weather conditions.
Although this is a very weak correlation between an increasing amount of ACE as the years
increase, there are anomalies suggesting that tropical revolving storms cannot be predicted
in terms of the amount of energy they produce due to high fluctuations annually.
06. Discuss the responses to one case study of a storm event in the British Isles you have
studied. (10 marks)
Level 1 (1-4 marks) (mid point 3)
Simple statements of responses which could apply to any storm event. No specific detail
provided. No attempt at discussion
Level 2 (5-8 marks) (mid point 6)
Specific statements of responses which can be clearly attributed to named areas access this
level. Elements of discussion.
Level 3 (9-10 marks) (mid point 9)
A fully developed answer, with good discussion and elaboration of responses. May
categorise or assess effectiveness.
Britain was affected by a very strong depression on the night between the 14th and 15th
October 1987. This was known as the Great Storm of 1987. The depression developed on
the 13th in the Bay of Biscay with a central pressure of 968mb. It reached Britain and
Brittany on the 14th. The impact was devastating – 22 people were killed, 4 in France, 18 in
the UK – mainly by falling trees, roof tiles and coastal flooding. The low pressure created a
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sea surge which hit the south coast, strong waves rose over sea defences flooding some
houses.
In response the government advised via the BBC that people do not travel to work that day
and stay at home helping the clear up operation in their local area. This had secondary
consequences on the UK economy which actually caused a fall in global share prices, felt in
Tokyo and New York because of the huge economic importance of London as a world city. In
the longer term many trees have now been replanted, with for example Toys Hill in Kent
completely reforested and many trees at Kew Gardens were saved by tree surgeons.
Shanklin pier on the Isle of Wight, which was destroyed, was never rebuilt, a monument was
built instead at the entrance of the old pier to stand as a commemoration of the events of
that day.
Elsewhere, environmentalists and volunteers helped to replant some of the trees lost in
national forests. Also concrete storage facilities were built to store the timber trees to allow
timber markets to stabilise before releasing them for sale.
There was also an investigation into why the storm hadn’t been picked up by the weather
reporters (such as the infamous Michael Fish) and weather systems at the Met Office. As a
result new monitoring equipment was stationed on the south coast and improved satellite
information covering the North Atlantic was supplied to the Met Office. Also the
government set up a new system whereby emergency services such as hospitals, fire crews
and the police would be alerted by pagers if a storm event was coming. This allows for
emergency services to be prepared by having more staff available to respond to the impacts
of a storm and essentially save more lives.
07. Figure 3 shows a map of Roundhay Park on the north-eastern rural/urban fringe of
Leeds, West Yorkshire. Comment on the activities shown. (7 marks)
Level 2 (5-7 marks) (mid point 6)
Comments which go beyond the information in the figure - evidence of intellectual
processing. May include some attempt to categorise.
Roundhay Park clearly provides a large area of open air recreation for the people of Leeds.
These areas of greenery in urban areas are very important. Towards the north of the park is
a golf course just over 500m tall and wide and will be a medium sized golf course. The
course is separated from the other areas of the park using deciduous trees. These also
separate it from the noise pollution of the ring road. The golf course has very little woodland
on it. However parking is on the other side of Upper Lake but park entrances are
conveniently close.
There are a lot of paths around the park and this provides a good space for leisure activities
such as walking and running which help to keep the population active. The large upper lake
and Waterloo Lake are likely to have ducks and maybe fish that people may wish to feed.
Waterloo Lake has a boat house suggesting that people could use model boats on the lake
or maybe a larger range of activities. There is a lakeside cafe positioned by the lake where
people could relax and enjoy a beverage.
The Arena is separated from other places of activity as a result of trees being positioned
along the paths. There is a very large range of activities that take place at the park all of
which have limited damage to ecosystems although will reduce succession.
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09. Discuss the impact on ecosystems of the planned and unplanned introduction of new
species into urban areas. (10 marks)
Level 2 (5-8 marks)
Specific or detailed statements of description/impact of planned and unplanned introduction
of new species; may be still an imbalance of aspects. Both elements of the question covered.
Level 3 (9-10 marks)
A fully developed answer, with good discussion of a range of impacts, with both elements
reaching a Level 2 response. The answer demonstrates both breadth and depth of
understanding.
Gardens (both private and public), parks, cemeteries, playing fields and school properties
are all areas where the vegetation is managed in a planned way. Gardeners, both domestic
and local authority, introduce new species, many of which are from overseas. Species of this
nature include imported trees and bushes such as the sycamore, rhododendron and
buddleia and are designed to decorate or enhance the quality of gardens. Others have been
introduced but have spread beyond where they were intended, and have become a
nuisance. Some of these are the buddleia again, and the Michaelmas daisy, Oxford Ragwort
and the Japanese knotweed.
Playing fields are areas where people try to plan the amount and nature of the species
present by mowing, weeding and the application of chemicals such as fertilisers or
herbicides. Most professional football grounds now have very carefully managed turfs, and
they are often changed several times in a season to maintain the high quality for the teams.
Local authority playing fields are less well-maintained and they will have more evidence of
clover, daisies and other weeds such as dandelions.
On the other hand, some environments in urban areas are unplanned. Many primary
schools for example have ‘wild’ areas to encourage a wide range of plants to develop
naturally in order to increase the number of wild flowers and hence encourage insects. The
same can be said for some road verges in towns where areas are not mowed to encourage
more native species. Although these are not new in the sense of they are already native to
the UK, they may be ‘new’ to the area having not been there for a while.
The same idea could be used for some animals which are also ‘new’ to the urban
environment in which they live. In these cases - the urban fox, the grey squirrel and the
parakeets of the London suburbs - their original habitat is not an urban area, and their
unplanned introduction has caused some concern for some urban residents. Urban foxes
have been seen working their way through waste bins, and some have been charged with
attacking small children in their beds in the London area. The grey squirrel is also a foreign
species - from the USA - so it has been both introduced, and unplanned.
One of the most famous examples of a negative impact by an unplanned species is that of
the Japanese knotweed. This spreads easily via rhizomes and cut stems or crowns. It is now
listed under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 as a plant that is not to be planted or
otherwise introduced into the wild. It causes extensive damage to paving, concrete and
tarmac-ed areas, and is extremely expensive and difficult to treat and remove. Perhaps its
major ‘crime’ is that it shades out native species and therefore reduces biodiversity in a
visually unattractive way.
Thus it can be seen that there is a variety of impacts of planned and unplanned introduction
of plant and animal species into urban areas.
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(13) Study Figure 5 which shows a development by the oil company Royal Dutch Shell in a
remote part of Canada. Comment on the possible socio-economic and environmental
impacts of this development. (7 marks)
(14) Outline reasons for the growth of TNCs. (8 marks)
Mark scheme.
Level 1 (1-4 marks) (mid point 3)
Simple statements of reasons for the growth of TNCs. Limited depth of understanding of
factors responsible. Max Level 1 for one fully developed reason.
1-4
Level 2 (5-8 marks) (mid point 6)
More detailed, specific or sophisticated reasons for the growth of TNCs. Understanding of
factors responsible is more clear. Support may be given
5-8
TNCs have grown for a number of reasons. In economic terms they have emerged primarily
due to the changing global distribution of industry. Originally the majority of the
manufacturing industry was based in the developed world but increased labour costs, poor
management and the running out of resources have resulted in deindustrialisation in
MEDCs. In contrast the rapid development of LEDCs has encourages TNCs to move
production there, where they can take advantage of the cheaper labour costs to make
production of goods more effective. This process is known as the global shift. The R&D side
of TNC operations has remained in the developed world resulting in international flows of
goods, capital and people resulting in corporations becoming international. TNCs have also
relied on radical changes in policies and viewpoints. They rely on the opening up of markets
via the advent of ‘economic liberalism’ whereby countries open themselves up to
investment from overseas. This has encouraged TNCs to travel across the globe to try to
take advantage of untapped markets. This change in thinking has been accompanied by a
number of policies like tax breaks and free tax zones, such as those in China with the Special
Economic Zones (SEZs). All this would not be possible without improvements in transport.
The advent of cheap, quicker air flights has allowed company executives to travel across the
globe within 24 hours and the growth of containerisation where goods can be transported
across the world in days has allowed company operations to become international. The
growth of global social and economic groupings such as the EU has promoted increased
communications and flows of capital and goods between nations with free trade between
members of the groupings. Finally improvements in technology with the advent of the
internet allowing instant communication and also the processing and retrieval of
information have further allowed company operations especially services to become global,
with call centres across the world and control available via email or mobile telephones.
(15) Discuss the social, economic and environmental impacts of TNCs on their host
countries. (10 marks)
Level 2 (5-8 marks) (mid point 6)
Specific and/or sophisticated statements of impacts which may be clearly attributed to
named areas and/or TNCs access this level. At least two of social, economic and
environmental impacts are addressed. Discussion must be clearly recognisable for 7/8
marks.
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Level 3 (9-10 marks) (mid point 9)
A fully developed answer, with good elaboration of a range of impacts of a range of TNCs
and/or within different areas. Each of social, economic and environmental impacts is
addressed, though not always to the same standard. A rounded answer with a full
discussion.
TNCs can have negative and positive impacts on host countries.
Economically TNCs can have positive and negative effects. Much of the money produced
returns to the origin country. However host countries do receive jobs which supply wages.
These wages can be taxed and spent to boost the economy of a host country. India’s service
industry has increased GDP dramatically - increasing from a 40% share in 2003 to 52% in
2010. This has been driven by TNCs in cities such as Bangalore - companies such as Infosys
and others. This is now the most valuable service industry sector in the world. An example
of where TNCs are not having a positive economic impact can be seen in Angola. China has
been aiding Angola’s development since the late 1990s. Large construction firms help
Angola by obtaining construction materials and modernising buildings. However little
money is put back into the economy by those firms as almost all employees are migrant
workers who send the money back to China. This has resulted in some social tension as the
Chinese workers do not mix with the Angolans, eat Chinese food and rarely purchase
Angolan goods.
In terms of social effects, these can also swing either way. Some TNCs provide housing for
their workers, such as Apple in Taipei. In Taipei there are also social issues. Many workers
have complained about the working hours, relative to the wages received and the working
conditions are rumoured to be very poor. Apple says it will not outsource to factories that
do not keep to strict regulations in regard to the wages, work times and other conditions.
However it appears that infractions occur. At the same factory it was also reported that 250
employees were fired, without severance pay due to complaints by the employers.
The environmental impacts of TNCs also seem to continue the trend and be negative. In
2005 it was revealed that Nike’s Asian factories were not only sweatshops but also
disobeyed a number of pollution regulations to do with the removal of waste and air
pollution. A key example of the negative effect of TNCs on the environment was the BP
Water Horizon oil spill in 2010. BP’s deep sea exploratory well exploded, pumping oil into
the Gulf of Mexico. The well had been constructed with sub-standard concrete and pumped
over 5 million barrels of oil into the Gulf over a 2 month period. The oil caused widespread
damage to aquatic ecosystems. The Gulf is home to the largest population of sea turtles,
with over 500 reported dead. The host country, the USA, had the southern coast damaged.
Mangroves in Louisiana were killed by oil clogging airways in the rock. Bird populations were
killed and the shrimping industry was destroyed, which also resulted in economic loss.
Elsewhere, TNCs in Chongqing in China have created the most polluted city in the world,
where over 10 million people in the greater urban area cannot access clean water from the
river Yangtse.
Therefore we can see that overall the impacts of TNCs on host countries tend to be negative
with very few positive effects arising. (10)
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Mark scheme for the essay questions
Assessment
criteria
Knowledge of
content, ideas
and concepts
Level 1
1-10 (midpoint
6)
Basic grasp of
concepts and
ideas; points
lack
development
or depth.
Level 2
11-20
(midpoint 16)
The answer is
relevant and
accurate.
Reasonable
knowledge.
Imbalanced
theories
Reasonable critical
understanding of
concepts and
principles with
some use of
specialist
vocabulary.
Examples show
imbalances and/or
lack detail and
depth
Level 3
21-30
(midpoint 26)
Sound and frequent
evidence of
thorough, detailed
and accurate
knowledge
Level 4
31-40
(midpoint 36)
Strong evidence of
thorough, detailed and
accurate knowledge
Sound and frequent
evidence of critical
understanding of
concepts and
principles, and of
specialist vocabulary.
Strong evidence of
critical understanding
of concepts and
principles and of
specialist vocabulary.
Examples are
developed, balanced
and support the
argument
Examples are well
developed and
integrated.
Critical
understanding of
the above
Incomplete,
basic.
Use of examples/
case studies to
support
argument
Superficial
Maps/Diagrams
(when used)
Evidence of
synopticity:
Ineffective
Some relevance
Effective
Fully integrated
No evidence
Limited.
Strong
Full
Connections
between
different aspects
of the subject
Some ability to
identify, interpret
and synthesise
some of the
material.
Some ability to
identify, interpret
and synthesise a
range of material.
There is a high level of
insight, and an ability to
identify, interpret and
synthesise a wide range
of material with
creativity.
‘Thinking like a
geographer’
Limited ability to
understand the
roles of values,
attitudes and
decision-making
processes.
Some ability to
understand the roles
of values, attitudes
and decision-making
processes.
Evidence of maturity in
understanding the role
of values, attitudes and
decision-making
processes.
Arguments are not
fully developed nor
expressed clearly,
and the
organisation of
ideas is simple and
shows imbalances.
Some sense of
focus of task.
Explanations,
arguments and
assessments or
evaluations are
accurate, direct,
logical, purposeful,
expressed with
clarity and generally
balanced. Clear sense
of focus of task.
Explanations,
arguments and
assessments or
evaluations are direct,
focused, logical,
perceptive, mature,
purposeful, and are
expressed coherently
and confidently, and
show both balance and
flair.
Quality of
argument – the
degree to which
an argument is
constructed,
developed and
concluded
Language is
basic;
arguments are
partial, over
simplified and
lacking clarity.
Little or no
sense of focus
of task.
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Question 19.
Analyse the factors that cause differences in the hazards posed by volcanoes around the
world.
Volcanic eruptions pose differing hazards around the world due to a number of mainly
physical factors associated with their eruption. A hazard is something that possesses a
danger to humans or human settlements and history shows us a number of different ways
in which volcanoes can pose hazards.
The first factor which in my opinion most importantly affects the hazard posed by a volcano
is the type of eruption. This tends to depend on the type of plate margin and subsequently
the type of lava present. More effusive volcanoes tend to occur at constructive plate
margins where plates diverge. At these margins plates diverge, weakening the lithosphere
which can then be melted by magma which can then rise to the surface. At these plate
boundaries lava tends to be basaltic meaning it has low silica content. This lava will
therefore allow gaseous bubbles to expand, preventing a build-up of pressure and
preventing an explosive eruption from occurring. The main threat with these Icelandic or
Hawaiian style eruptions is the lava flows associated. Basaltic lava is not at all viscous,
meaning it is more fluid and can run for much greater distances before solidifying. An
example of an effusive Hawaiian eruption was seen in 1992/3 from the Sicilian Mt Etna.
7.6km2 of lava was released over 473 days and the lava flows covered crops grown on the
fertile soils on the flanks. The main danger of the lava flow tends not to be human life but
instead to homes, infrastructure and crops or water supplies. For example to prevent lava
flows reaching the town of Zefferana a 400m long, 20m high barrier was erected and along
with help from the US marines, explosives were dropped into the lava tube and concrete
blocks into the main flow to try to slow it down. Whether or not these efforts worked, the
lava stopped 850m from the town. These effusive eruptions can be very costly however. For
example, the eruption of Eyjafyallajokull in 2010 caused the eruption of ash which
aggravated plans to access Europe for 6 days by air, at an economic cost of £250 million a
day. However there was little threat to human lives or infrastructure.
More explosive eruptions tend to occur at destructive plate margins where high intensity
melting of the subducting plate results in the formation of rhyolitic lava or andesitic lava.
Andesitic, and to an even greater extent, rhyolitic lave have high silica content which
prevents gas bubbles from expanding, leading to a build-up of pressure released in a much
more explosive eruption, Plinean or Peleean in style. These eruptions such as Mt Pinatubo in
1991 are much higher on the VEI scale and bring a much greater degree and number of
hazards. These eruptions are associated with pyroclastic flows or nuee ardent, powerful
explosive clouds of gas, ash and tephra which can be at excess of 300C and travel at speeds
of 500mph. These pyroclastic flows can travel many kilometers, 16 in the case of Pinatubo
and if caught in their path buildings are destroyed, trees flattened and people killed. 854
died as a result of Pinatubo. These explosive eruptions can also cause torrential rainstorms,
leading to the formation of lahars. They erupt vast quantities of harmful gases such as SO2
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and CO. These can have worldwide effects, for example the Mt Pinatubo eruption caused a
temporary 0.4C increase in global temperature, which could have melted ice in Antarctica.
Another physical factor is the location and physical geography of the area. For example,
Mount Okmok erupted in 2008 with an eruption which had pyroclastic flows and vast
volumes of ash and tephra as well as reaching 4 on the VEI. However nobody was with a
40km radius due to its remote location in Alaska. The hazards were minimal. Population
density of the area is therefore a key factor in the differing nature of hazards posed by
eruptions. On the flip side the Nevada del Ruiz eruption in Colombia 1985 was only so
dramatic in its tragedy due to the physical geography. Its altitude meant that there were
vast deposits of ice and snow surrounding the central vent of the volcano. The melting of
these led to the development of 4 thick lahars. Again through the physical geography of the
area it had a key role to play. Beneath the volcano there were 6 river valleys which the
lahars travelled down. This led to them doubling in size by the time they hit the towns in the
shadow of the volcano. Over 23000 people were killed by the lahars, making the eruption
the second deadliest of the 20th century. Another example of the location and physical
geography playing a key role is the eruption associated with that of La Cumbre Vieja on the
Canary Island of La Palma. Due to its coastal location, an eruption would see a large
landslide into the Atlantic Ocean which would create a tsunami. Some models suggest that
this could be as much as 1000m in height, almost unimaginable. This would bring utter
devastation to the west coast of Africa and the east coast of the USA, and cities such as New
York.
Different volcanoes also pose different hazards around the world depending on some
human factors such as the ability to plan and predict the events and how effectively they
can deal with the secondary impacts associated with those eruptions. For example in the
Philippines the eruption of Pinatubo was predicted by the PHILVOCS and the USGS due to
the combination of seismic activity, phreatic eruptions, changes in gas emissions and by
using tilt meters to detect an inflation of the dome. In many ways the numbers of warning
signs that can be detected change the nature of the hazard. This allowed the evacuation of
60000 people from the vicinity to be conducted in a calm and composed way. This
prevented overcrowding in camps of those displaced and subsequent spread of disease like
dysentery and typhoid was reduced. Food and water supplies could be provided. 847 died
due to the eruption, but without the evacuation, estimates suggest that up to 50000 more
would have. In contrast there was no warning of the eruption at Mt Nyiragongo in the DRC
in 2002. Panic set in here and 400000 fled to neighbouring Rwanda. There were food
shortages, poor accommodation and communicable disease spread quickly. Due to poor
planning and preparation 80 also died of asphyxiation of CO2, a hazard which would be and
was more ably dealt with following the eruption of Eyjafyallajokull where face masks and
goggles were handed out to prevent respiratory problems and eye irritation.
A volcano will also present different hazards depending on the stage of life it is in. Many
volcanoes, most even, are extinct and so pose no risk. It is only in the regions of the world
where volcanoes are active that they will pose a risk. Looking at volcanoes which occur in
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chains over hot spots the hazards associated will differ dependent on the stage of
development that the volcano is in. Mauna Loa is more recently formed so results in
effusive Hawaiian style eruptions with the low threat of lava flows, lahars and emission of
gas and ash. However when these volcanoes start to develop and track across the hot spot
their eruptive nature changes becoming more explosive until they reach the rejuvenated
stage where there are more pyroclastic flows etc.. The Hawaiian volcanoes will become a
more hostile place to live in as their volcanoes develop.
In conclusion the hazards proposed by volcanic eruptions differ vastly depending on the
type of margin, lava associated, the age of the volcano, its location, the physical geography
of the area, and human ability to prepare for an eruption. Even with needed monitoring,
planning and preparation, the magnitude of an eruption as physical events will always result
in them providing a diverse range of destructive hazards, whether they affect infrastructure
and farm lands, contaminate water supplies or at their most extreme, human life. (1335
words)
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To what extent can urban areas be sustainable?
Sustainability in the context of urban areas refers to the ability of a population to thrive
socially and economically but without over using resources and damaging the environment
for the future generations. Large amounts of planning and management processes are
undertaken throughout urban areas in order to maximise an area’s sustainability. This
management and planning varies across the globe.
Curitiba in southern Brazil has the 5th biggest economy of cities in Brazil. The city acts as one
of Brazil’s financial hubs. Nevertheless Curitiba also has a strong manufacturing pedigree
with the South American headquarters of Volvo trucks located here. As a consequence the
city’s population swells to over 4 million during week days. In order to cope with such large
numbers of people the local government had to find a solution to the congestion
throughout the city. After much consultation it was decided that the city would be
pedestrianised. Furthermore a deal was secured with the local Volvo factory to supply a new
form of bi-articulated bus. These buses travel along designated routes carrying over 10000
passengers per day each. The Rapid Bus Network as it is known has been calculated to be
500 times cheaper than a subway system. Unlike a subway system the network can increase
the number of buses in response to varying demand. The Curitiba RBN operates cost
effectively, making it extremely economically sustainable.
London is also a financial hub. Unlike Curitiba it has adopted an underground train system.
The system is the oldest in the world, 150 years old. This has caused many issues that other
transport systems would not experience. The old tunnels need constant repair and the
operational costs of the old stations far exceed that of modern subway systems.
Nevertheless authorities have endorsed strategies that have made the underground system
economically and financially sustainable. Over 80% of the operational costs are covered by
ticket fares. With a new £10 billion improvement plan over the next 10 years, the figure is
set to rise.
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One of the main issues faced by any urban environment is the disposal of waste. Curitiba
has adopted a unique method for dealing with such a problem. The bin men travel to the
poorer suburbs. Here they exchange fruit and vegetables for waste materials that have been
collected to be recycled. This not only gives incentives for people in the city to recycle, but it
helps less waste on the streets go to landfill. Thanks to such initiatives Curitiba is able to
recycle 75% of all of its waste, far more than almost any MEDC urban environment. This has
helped the city become highly environmentally sustainable.
In the east of London new projects have been devised since 2000 to try and improve the
environmental sustainability of the area. One of the main projects was the Greenwich
Ecology Park and the O2 arena, one of the premier indoor arenas across the globe.
Architects used the large surface area of the roofs to capture rain water and use it to flush
the toilets in the facility. In addition the Greenwich Ecology Park was opened. It consists of
woodland and open parkland to allow people to walk and observe local ecosystems. Such
parks are extremely environmentally sustainable as they act as CO2 sinks as well as a place
to support local wildlife.
Flooding is a major issue throughout the globe. Curitiba experiences flooding on a regular
basis due to its close proximity to the Amazon rainforest. As a result urban planners decided
to build large reservoirs to hold flood waters and prevent flooding. In its self this idea is
extremely sustainable. However designers decided to integrate the reservoirs into a
parkland with attraction events such as boating as well as waterfalls and fishing. The project
has been a huge success and allows the city’s population to be no more than a short bus
ride away from the park. This area will continue to perform its social and environmental
function for years to come and will not drain resources. This makes the city parkland and
reservoirs very sustainable.
Fortunately London does not have the same risk of flooding as Curitiba. The main issue in
London is the lack of housing. In Stratford in east London the Olympic site is under
construction. The 2012 games are being marketed as the most sustainable ever and with
good reason. For example the Olympic village which consists of 1500 flats is not going to be
destroyed after the games. Instead the flats will be renovated and sold to the public at
affordable prices. This scheme will not only provide money to the Olympic fund but provide
affordable housing to an area in the centre of London.
Cities often act as centres for a wide range of jobs. The most successful and sustainable
cities will demonstrate a job market that is stable and has longevity. Curitiba is home to the
South American HQ for Volvo trucks. This has provided over 1000 jobs alone. Furthermore
the city authorities worked in conjunction with Volvo in order to design a revolutionary biarticulated bus. This has made Curitiba a beacon for mass transport throughout the globe.
Their approach by partnering Volvo has been so successful the system has been suggested a
model for the redevelopment of Baghdad.
The 2012 Olympic Games act as a way in which London can be the most sustainable games
ever. This claim must incorporate all aspects of the games including jobs. As a result the
London Olympic committee has pledged to provide 20% of all the jobs on the Olympic park
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to job seekers within the local area. Furthermore due to plans to maintain the Olympic site
as a prime sporting venue after the games it is likely that many of these people will keep
their jobs. This provides social and economic sustainability to the area by ensuring that
improvements are not temporary whilst maintaining their longevity.
Sustainability in urban areas is something that is extremely hard to achieve. It often comes
as a compromise as 100% sustainability in urban environments is nearly impossible.
However both London and Curitiba have taken a systematic approach to solving complex
urban problems. Both cities demonstrate economic, social and environmental sustainability
to varying degrees. In response to this question I believe urban areas can be sustainable if
the management of those urban areas considers sustainability equal to economic and social
success.
22 How successful has the regeneration of urban areas been, given the variety of ways
it has been undertaken?
Extracts
The London Docklands development was a property led scheme, led by the LDDC (London
Docklands Development Corporation) - a UDC. When asked about the unemployment issues,
the conservative government championed the idea of trickle-down economics - the belief
that the wealth created at the top would trickle down to the lowest sectors of the economy.
Wealth was certainly created at the top; Canary Wharf employs around 8500 people and is a
global financial hub. These jobs were too highly skilled for locals preventing employment
further. As this project was a property led regeneration scheme, the land of Canary Wharf is
privately owned, and gated off to the local community. Canary Wharf effectively survives in
its own ‘bubble’. And like a bubble, there is no way in which any wealth generated can
escape. Trickle-down economics had not worked in the way Thatcher suggested. To this day
the Isle of Dogs remains one of the most deprived areas of London. Juxtaposed with the high
rise glass skyscrapers is the grey of social deprivation and decline.
The LA and LDA also created the PPP of the Westfield retail centre in Shepherd’s Bush. This
vast shopping area with over 50 restaurants and various attractions such as an ice rink and
14 screen cinema attracts over 15 million visitors a year. It employs around 7000 people with
schemes in place to train young people in the trade of retailing. Shepherd’s Bush was also a
declining area, although the Westfield development has had further negative effects. To
make space for the site, businesses were cleared, causing the unemployment to rise by 1100
people. Smaller shops cannot afford to rent space in the centre and so profits go to chain
stores and the Australian company of Westfield. Using shopping centres as the form of
regeneration as long been a common strategy but may become less successful in the future.
With internet shopping increasing, and areas of the high street dying out by the closure of
nationwide stores such as HMV and Jessops it seems that this way of encouraging the
regeneration of urban areas may not be as effective in the long run.
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